Breaking bad news Free Essay Example, 3000 words

Finding out how much the patient’s capacity of accepting information – patients should have a say in the capacity or content given by the medical professional. In other words, bringing up bad news has no right answer and a way to establish the right of the patient to choose, give him/her the chance to establish the information content. Sharing the information – before talking with the patient, prepare the agendas to discuss like the diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, and coping. However, a right agenda only covers two of the aforementioned areas. It is not useful to discuss in a long medically termed context. It must be simple and comprehensible; hence, medical terms are translated in simple, understandable English. Responding to the patient’s feelings – understanding the patient’s reaction is important. However, this skill improves through experience, as with the enhancement of acknowledgement and identification. Planning and follow-through – all gathered information ought to have apt documentation for further planning of the patient’s situation. A step-by-step plan given to the patient will be in his/her system of healthcare (Buckman, 2007, as quoted from Back, 1999). We will write a custom essay sample on Breaking bad news or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now The nurse’s decision of family care mostly depends on the NHS Plan and the Code of Professional Conduct. Communicative skills of a nurse are an important interpersonal skill in building trust in families of patients and the patient himself. To develop good skills in communication to patients in breaking bad news, one reliable tool is the Leske’s Inventory. This inventory will assess the family’s needs, which the nurse needs to prioritize in time of stressful events happening in unfamiliar environments. Leske’s inventory will work on critical intimidating care and other fields of healthcare. However, many critical care nurses lack the skill and training for better communicative skills in delivering bad news. To give a holistic care, nurses should be able to plan, implement, and evaluate the individualized family needs effectively. Hence, the care will result in autonomy when managing both the family and the patient’s empowerment occurs (Back, 1999) . Sensitivity in Delivering Bad News to Patients with Life-Limiting Illnesses Breaking bad news should be sensitive in many ways, with ample consideration of the patient’s ethnic background, gender, and social class. Patient information and the common errors for breaking bad news are presented in the following discussion. One life limiting illness where breaking bad news happens is caring for people with cancer (Moody, 2003).

Is There a God - 1820 Words

The question of whether there is any clear evidence of Gods existence, tried to argue for many centuries, by engaging in this enlightened minds, representing both positions on this controversy.In recent years, evidence refuting the possibility of the existence of God have become the cause of many clashes, accusing at the same time anyone who dares to say that he believes in God, a man who believes illusions and irrational.Karl Marx stressed that everyone who believes in God must suffer from a mental disorder which affects its ability to correct thinking.The psychiatrist Sigmund Freud wrote that a person who believes in God the Creator has the illusion and asserts itself in this belief because they believe in the factor fulfilling the†¦show more content†¦es-the reality of eternal or reality that has been created by something eternal: an eternal universe or the eternal Creator.In the eighteenth century theologian Jonathan Edwards summed it up as follows:†¢ Something exis ts†¢ something can not be created from nothing†¢ It is therefore necessary and eternal something there mustnote that we must go back to the eternal something. Atheists, who mock believers in faith in the eternal Creator must turn and grasp the eternal universe, this is the only way you can choose.But now the question arises where the evidence leads me?Is the evidence confirms that the matter arose before mind or mind before matter?Every scientific or philosophical evidence we move away from the eternal universe to the eternal Creator.From a scientific standpoint, honest scientists admit that the universe had a beginning, and whatever has a beginning is not eternal.In other words, anything that has a beginning has also a cause, and if the universe had a beginning, was also a cause.The fact that the universe had a beginning is proved eg by the second law of thermodynamics, radiation echo of the Big Bang was discovered at the beginning of 1900, the fact that the universe is e xpanding, you can refer to the fact that it had a beginning, or the theory of relativity of Einstein.All this confirms that the universe is not eternal.Besides, the rights associated with causality seem to deny that the universe was the ultimate cause of explaining the origins ofShow MoreRelatedGod s God : God813 Words   |  4 PagesGod being in control and intimately involved with His creation is essential to our faith as Christians. This belief impacts all Believers regardless of vocation however it is especially important for those of us going into ministry as pastors. â€Å"I used to ask God to help me. Then I asked if I might help Him. I ended up asking God to do His work through me.†(Hudson Taylor) Throughout all of Scripture we see God alluding to the truth that He created all things and is at work in all things and ultimatelyRead MoreLord God, God And God851 Words   |  4 Pagesthe supreme being: God and Lord God. While God and Lord God both have immense power an d the unique ability to create, they are separate characters with separate personalities. Lord God is like a Greek anthropomorphic god with human desires and limitations, whereas God is an all-powerful abstract being of pure spirit. Lord God, like a Greek anthropomorphic god, has a human form and body. We first learn about Lord God in chapter two, the second creation story. Firstly, Lord God â€Å"formed man from theRead MoreThe God Of God1504 Words   |  7 Pageswas the god of creation. He was round and monstrous in size. Nobody knows how he came to be, but nobody ever dared to question him about it, even when they were given the chance. This was because Mundo was rude and aggressive, but, contrary to what many believed at first, he still had feelings. Mundo began to feel very alone after the first few days of being by himself. He had nobody to talk to and began to feel very gloomy. Then he had the idea to create something to fix his loneliness: gods. If heRead MoreGod s God And God762 Words   |  4 PagesGod created the earth for human beings to have peace and a close relationship with God. He does not expect the human race to rebel. The Abrahamic covenant was god’s response to the sin and rebell ion. God promises land, promise of many descendants, a promise on blessing Abraham, and blessing and curses others. When you begin reading the second book of the Bible, Exodus, and the children of Israel had become a nation down in Egypt. They had become virtual slaves in bondage, but God did not forget HisRead MoreThe God Is Blessed By God1313 Words   |  6 Pagesour lives we hear people saying, God has blessed me or I am blessed and most of the time the first thing that comes to our minds is success. We immediately relate blessings to something great. The most common understanding of what it means to be blessed by God is that we receive good things from Him. In this case, we can say that everyone, believes and non-believers receive blessings from God. However, we should ask ourselves this: are the blessings from God only limited to materialistic thingsRead MoreJesus, God, And God1291 Words   |  6 Pagesbeings: he was God s son. He was all man because he had a growth, development and limitations as a normal human. But he was also every god. In the Bible certain details and evidence for this claim is. Throughout his life he never sinned, forgive sins and God did. In addition, he called himself I am like God because Jesus, God the Son, and God the Father are one. Moreover, Jesus shows the union of God with humanity. He had three purposes; be the prophet who spoke the word of God to the people,Read MoreIs God A True God? Essay971 Words   |  4 Pages I believe that there is a true God who is involved in the world. If it would not be for our God who is keeping everything under His control, the world would cease to exist. God is the one who created this world. He is the only being who is eternal. God was not created. He created the world and continues to be very much involved in it. God created everything in this world from nothing. Then He formed man from the dust of the earth. After He formed man, He breathed into him theRead MoreJesus : The God Of God1408 Words   |  6 Pagesthe Son of God, etc. but the true meaning behind His name will only be determined by the faith and revelation. Scholars on this subject have tried to search the truth among the Scriptures, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and other canonic books. One thing that it is found in common is the coming of a messiah, a chosen man by God who will change the world. When God created humankind, He placed in the Eden, His primeval messiah, and he was appointed to represent Him on earth, but Adam failed to God and made theRead MoreThe Word Of God : God964 Words   |  4 Pagesthat when God spoke for the first time, Life, in the form of an energy called light, illuminated the universe. In that moment of time, darkness was the present condition across the expanse. The darkness could not understand the light and thus fled as God expressed his sovereign will through the spoken Word. The declaration of His Word brought forth light. This original light inundated the cosmos with life. Therefore, we conclude that life in the universe exists by the verbal Word of God. The writtenRead MoreGreek Gods And The Gods1528 Words   |  7 PagesAfter Hephaestus falls out of Zeus’ good graces, Thetis is able to lend her helping hand, displaying the hierarchical dynamic between the gods. The gods are indebted to each other, the likely reason that Hephaestus felt as though he needed to make Thetis the ornate shield. The duty and obligation to each other fuels the mutualistic relationships between the gods. Thetis’ motivation to help Hephaestus was not solely out of kindness; rather Thetis saw the opportunity to make a strategic move and put

Are Essay Writing Services Legal, Ethical or Cheating Free Essays

The potential misuse of essay writing services for plagiarism by students raises a host of potential problems for such business. This report addresses the resulting ethical issues, concerning the potential for cheating and its consequences, the political issues, such as the potential for undermining academic institutions and promoting success driven by wealth rather than merit, and legal issues, in the form of copyright actions and the potential for liability for negligently caused economic loss. If you’d like to read a concise version of this post, from a student’s point of view, please click here. We will write a custom essay sample on Are Essay Writing Services Legal, Ethical or Cheating? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Introduction Businesses such as Write Enterprise Ltd face a host of ethical, political and legal threats which emerge from the potential for their use in plagiarism. Plagiarism is an elusive concept, though Hannabuss has offered a useful definition, ‘the unauthorised use or close imitation of the ideas and language/expression of someone else. It involves representing their work as your own†¦ with little or no acknowledgement of the borrowing and the source.’[1] Essay sites, through the provision of targeted model answers, clearly have the capacity to facilitate plagiarism, and it will be shown that this gives rise to moral censure, may be increased by political developments, and has legal ramifications in the form of necessary copyright protection and limitation of liability for economic loss. Ethical Issues: The Potential for Misuse A plethora of ethical considerations arise from essay writing businesses, for both the writers and the students involved. Although plagiarism may not be a criminal offence, it is widely viewed as unethical ‘cheating’. Its contravention of the moral rules of society, is reflected in the fact that it contravenes academic regulations and professional rules, failure to comply with which can lead to drastic consequences, such as students being excluded, loss of reputation and breaches of contract.Yet it is clear that plagiarism is easier than ever before in an electronic age where documents can be copied and pasted on the internet without due attribution, and is widely regarded to be on the increase[2]. A study[3] of students in the UK revealed that 50% of students would be prepared to plagiarise in order to avoid failing a course, 62% would feel guilty about plagiarising, and 10% would have no regrets. In light of the propensity for cheating, there are ethical concerns for a writer in an essay business that his research may be misused for the purposes of academic dishonesty. On the one hand, it is possible to view model answers as another source that a student has at his disposal, such as a textbook and a journal. It is ultimately the intentions of the client that determine whether unethical results follow and a student may equally plagiarise from these sources if he is so minded. On the other hand, it is clear that the focused and targeted response given to specific questions means that abuse is more likely. However, one cannot ignore the many clients who use essay writing services legitimately to further own learning.. Any questioning of the ethics of such businesses must account for the positive impact they have on guiding those in difficulty. The public perception of essay writing services is undermined by questionable ethics, and legitimate clients may be deterred. It is therefore vital for such businesses to clearly state their ethical policy and present good practice guides on how the research should best be used. Political Issues: Increasing Demand Propensity for Harm If students lack research skills and knowledge by blindingly relying on the services of essay writing services without conducting work of their own, it could be that the economic and social role of educational establishments in providing capable employees is consequently undermined.As Foster[4] remarks, ‘For western education establishments, given the economic function they are intended to serve, then allowing plagiarism to go unchecked could have serious implications for the value of qualifications and the economic well-being of the countries concerned.’ There are also political challenges for essay writing services that present opportunities for plagiarism. Political factors, such as the increasing costs of higher education, greater student numbers, increased pressure in light of difficult job markets, perceptions of degrees as economic investment products rather than learning opportunities, and the greater influx of international students, have identified as causes for the increase in plagiarism[5]. Such factors may also increase demand for legitimately commissioned research, as the cost of failing increases. Legal Issues: Copyright and Economic Loss Copyright is a critical area for the law for essay services, as it is important that the work commissioned is not misused either by the client or the writer. The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (CDPA) provides automatic copyright protection for original literary work produced by British citizens[6]. Even if a writer infringes copyright, the essay site may still retain it in the commissioned work[7], and to do so it is crucial for the business to ensure that appropriate copyright assignments and waivers of moral rights were included in the written agreements commissioning the work. The CDPA specifically permits the assignment of copyright in works which have not yet been created and this can be exploited by the businesses by providing appropriate contracts to writers, ensuring that businesses retain copyright for the work they commission. However, moral rights[8] in particular represent a hazard for essay sites, as they remain with the author and cannot be assigned[9]. It is recommended, therefore, that in contracts with writers essay sites expressly require them to forfeit their moral rights. It would also be beneficial for copyright not to be granted to the client. The danger here lies in ‘implied licenses’, arising where copyright material is provided in the knowledge that it is to be reproduced for specific purposes, a licence being implied that it can be used for that purpose. It is crucial that essay sites exclude the operation of implied licences by giving clients express licences strictly limited to the purpose of using the commissioned work as a basis for conducting their own independent work, precluding sharing to others. A possible threat that could emerge to essay services is the law pertaining to negligent misstatements occasioning economic loss[10]. Liability arises when a duty of care is imposed on the provider or professional advice where he is entrusted to use reasonable care and skill by the recipient and it is reasonable for the recipient to rely thereon[11].The key ingredient of the principle, that a person holds himself out as having special expertise thus inviting reasonable reliance, clearly applied to essay writing services. Furthermore, it is that this tortuous liability survives the making of a contract, and that the recovery of damages includes loss of future earnings[12], particularly relevant if a client is expelled for academic dishonesty and claims for loss of career prospects. Although a disclaimer of liability may be sufficient[13] to preclude liability for negligently occasioned economic loss, this may be found to be subject to the requirements of reasonableness in the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977[14].The absence of alternative means to protect clients is a critical factor distinguishing liability here from the position where disclaimers are held to be effective[15], and could equally be applied to the essay service market. It is critical therefore, in addition to making good on anti-plagiarism and quality promises, for essay sites to stress that students should seek further advice before submitting and relying on the work conducted for them. Conclusion By adopting a strong ethical and moral standpoint, as well as robust terms and conditions, many of the potential legal threats can be averted. The more an essay site does to demonstrate that it does not invite ‘reliance’ on its products, by providing guidelines on how to use research and avoid plagiarism for example, the less likely it is to fall into the trap of professional advice occasioning economic loss. It has also been shown that copyright protection, with effective express licences, is crucial to limit terms of use and writers’ moral rights that may undermine the service offered.By adopting this approach, an essay business can withstand increasing political pressures and ethical criticism to offer a quality research service for the benefit of its clients. Bibliography BBC News, ‘Student Plagiarism on the Rise’ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/4257479.stm David Bainbridge, Intellectual Property (8th Edition Pearson Longman, London 2010) JISC ‘Deterring, Detecting and Dealing with Student Plagiarism’ http://www.jisc.ac.uk/publications/briefingpapers/2005/pub_plagiarism.aspx Lunney Oliphant, Tort Law Text and Materials (4th Edn OUP, New York 2010) Hughes McBride, ‘Hedley Byrne in the House of Lords: an interpretation’ (1995) LS 15(3) 376-389 Peter Foster, ‘Plagiarism in Higher Education’ (2004) No 18 http://www.ecole-management-normandie.fr/upload/editeur/2CR18.pdf Stuart Hannabuss. ‘Contested Texts: Issues Of Plagiarism Library Management Volume 22 (2001) Underwood, J. Szabo, A. Academic offences and e-learning: individual propensities in cheating. (2003) British Journal of Educational Technology 34, 467-478 [1] Stuart Hannabuss. ‘Contested Texts: Issues Of Plagiarism Library Management Volume 22 (2001) [2] BBC News, ‘Student Plagiarism on the Rise’ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/4257479.stm [3] Underwood, J. Szabo, A. Academic offences and e-learning: individual propensities in cheating. (2003) British Journal of Educational Technology 34, 467-478 [4] Peter Foster, ‘Plagiarism in Higher Education’ (2004) No 18 http://www.ecole-management-normandie.fr/upload/editeur/2CR18.pdf [5] JISC ‘Deterring, Detecting and Dealing with Student Plagiarism’ http://www.jisc.ac.uk/publications/briefingpapers/2005/pub_plagiarism.aspx [6] David Bainbridge, Intellectual Property (8th Edition Pearson Longman, London 2010) p.39 [7] ZYX Music GmbH v King [1995] FSR 566 The requirement for the work to be original does not preclude derivative work from being protected, the key issue being whether sufficient skill and labour has gone into the creation of the new work, and crucially this means copyright may subsist in a work even though it infringes copyright in another work. [8] CDPA 1988 ss. 80-83 including the right of the author to be identified where asserted, and the right to object to derogatory treatment of the work in the form of addition, deletion and alteration where the work is made public. The right to be identified undermines the confidentiality of the service essay sites offer, and the moral right in relation to derogatory treatment inhibits client’s use of the work as a basis of their own if they intend to publish. [9] David Bainbridge, Intellectual Property (8th Edition Pearson Longman, London 2010) pp.120-145 [10] Lunney Oliphant, Tort Law Text and Materials (4th Edn OUP, New York 2010) pp.417-451 [11] Hedley Byrne v Heller Partners [1964] AC 465 [12] Esso v Mardon [1976] EWCA Civ 4 [13] As on the facts of Hedley Byrne [14] Smith v Bush [1990] UKHL 1. In holding that the disclaimer did not satisfy the requirement, regard was had to the facts that the plaintiff in that case was a private non-expert individual, and the practice of failing to get further advice in this sector was widespread. Both of these factors are relevant to the essay market, providing advice to non-experts who, it could be assumed, are unlikely to seek further advice. [15]Hughes McBride, ‘Hedley Byrne in the House of Lords: an interpretation’ (1995) LS 15(3) 376-389 How to cite Are Essay Writing Services Legal, Ethical or Cheating?, Essay examples

Why Do College Students Cheat free essay sample

I myself can say Ive never cheated in college, but in high school I did. I think we all have done it a time or two. Cheating is something Im sure everyone can relate to. Have you ever felt like the pressure for good grades is on? Students and families often have very high expectations about grade achievements; especially if they were accustomed to getting good grades. (Student Affairs, Carnegie Mellon University) Not only do high expectations come into effect, but also the pressure of maintaining a certain GAP to get into your majors.Pressure of getting good grades is something a lot of students may struggle with and that is one of the reasons why a student may cheat. So lets say you feel bad about cheating and want to stop. What can you do so you wont be so tempted? First, try to relieve the pressure on you to get high grades. We will write a custom essay sample on Why Do College Students Cheat or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Talk to you parents or maybe even your friends, about your grades in school. Try also, to get good career counseling. Talk to your professors, ask questions, see a tutor if needed. And make sure what your going to college for is something that Interests you.This can take away some of the pressure. Too much work, too little time? This could be a second reason college students may cheat. A lot of the time, students often have multiple assignments due on the same day. Cheating can be a tempting path when students have difficulty managing their time. (Student Affairs, Carnegie Mellon University) A lot of the time, like me, you have a student who is working, going to school and possibly may even have a child. Whew! If I were to cheat, that would probably be my reason! Too much work, too little time!This paper has demonstrated what may drive a student to cheat. Although there are many reasons why students may cheat, I talked about the reasons that are more familiar to me. With the technology now a days theres more and more ways for a students to cheat. Students have tremendous pressure on them to get good grades. Their anxiety level is up, and the temptation to cheat is strong. So what do you do? What to students do?

American Tendency of Rising Taxes

Recently, American citizens have witnessed a tendency of rising taxes (Blodget 1). This issue of rising taxes seems to have gained momentum, especially after the financial recession of 2008. Today, many Americans are concerned about the increasing tax levels. The issue of huge taxes has led to declining disposable income, forcing many consumers to struggle in their daily lives.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on American Tendency of Rising Taxes specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More If one was to interview many Americans on the issue of taxes, there are high chances that many of them will respond by highlighting their deteriorating living standards resulting from high taxes. This paper will discuss the issue of high taxes and its effect on American people. The direct impact of high taxes on households would be low purchasing power, which leads to a reduction in consumption levels, as well as accumulation of debts as hous ehold seek alternative source of funds to support their livelihood. On the other hand, high taxes affect businesses, as they eat into the firms’ profits, significantly reducing net earnings that could be used in expansion of business or new investments. As a result, the whole economy tends to suffer, as demand decreases significantly. Therefore, there is need for government agencies responsible for tax regulation to initiate tax reforms and policies that would be beneficial to all the stakeholders in the economy. Moreover, given that the taxpayers are directly affected by the tax system in place, it is important that the system should be equitable, accommodative, and fair to all stakeholders. High taxes have a negative effect on the growth of the economy. For example, high taxes lead to low net incomes despite the efforts made by people to earn such income, thus eroding motivation from people who then become less productive (Cohn 1). In addition, high taxes tend to increase o perating costs for businesses, and since the businesses have to make profit, they may decide to increase the price of finished products or lay off some employees in order to cut costs. The effect of expensive finished products is felt by consumers. Indeed, the consumers are affected twice by increased taxes, first through reduced income and then through increased commodity prices. The general effect of this tax increment is reduction in purchases, which then leads to reduction in supply as firms reduce production to match demand. Finally, the overall economic activity in the country declines, thus affecting economic growth negatively. Although the above points call for reduction of taxes for the benefit of consumers and investors, some scholars believe that low taxes are not beneficial to the economy. They state that, taxes are used by government to finance public goods, which are essential for the welfare of citizens (Cohn 1). Therefore, low taxes will make provision of welfare goo ds by the government difficult, thus deteriorating the general economic conditions.Advertising Looking for essay on law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, the government will be forced to cut budget for public goods such as healthcare, education, transport, security among others, which are essential for all citizens, the result of which will be a decrease in social welfare of the society (Cohn 1). Therefore, the issue of enacting reforms to reduce taxes to manageable levels for majority of Americans is considered not to be the best option by this school of thought. There are numerous avenues through which this issue of high taxes can be tackled and bring relief to majority of Americans. As the situation stands now, many businesses are either closing down due to high taxes or moving to other countries where taxes are affordable. The result is the increasing unemployment as job opportunities decline. Moreover, as busines ses relocate, government financing declines, leading to collapse of various programs and reduction of wealth creation in the country. The government should therefore initiate a policy that encourages investment and wealth creation. Such a policy would ensure that the taxes applicable to various business classes are equitable and fair so that the businesses are able to operate profitable. When this happens, numerous companies willing to leave will be enticed to stay and participate in wealth creation. The establishment of more indigenous industries will provide employment for many Americans, enabling the many consumers to possess more income after paying taxes. What the government will do is that, instead of concentrating high taxes on a particular segment of population, it should spread the tax bracket across a wide group, making it possible to reduce taxes as more people become eligible to pay taxes. The government should also reform its spending pattern for effective implementatio n of tax system by prioritizing the most important programs. Indeed, this will largely reduce the deficit and enable the economy to recover. Another area that the government needs to address is the American property industry. According to Tuttle (1), property taxes have skyrocketed recently, forcing investors to shy away from the property industry, or even relocating to other industries or countries. Moreover, as property taxes increase, property prices including rent increase, thus affecting consumers and small businesses. Indeed, small businesses are the main drivers of the economy, therefore, when they are faced with expensive properties, they tend to relocate, leading to unemployment and reduced trading activities. When this happens, the impact is huge and evident in key aspects such as reduction of employment opportunities, increase in number of unemployment benefits, and little contribution to national tax kitty. Therefore, it is prudent for effective and efficient property ta x reforms to be enacted.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on American Tendency of Rising Taxes specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The issue of raising tax for the rich and middle class population is very sensitive to the economy. Generally, a rise in taxes creates an immense burden to larger American society. The society cannot progress at an accelerated speed if high taxes persist, as this tends to push investors and rich people to other regions. As investors move away from the economy, employment opportunities reduce, while at same time, taxes reduce leading to low production of social welfare programs that cannot adequately cater for the whole population. Therefore, given the immense negative effects that high tax are imposing on the nation, there is need for establishment and implementation of a comprehensive tax reform framework that is more business friendly. Increased business activity contributes to growth of the economy, as more people are able to earn incomes, thus entering into tax bracket. In this case, distribution of tax pay will be more even and widespread, thus allowing government to reduce tax rates while at the same time collecting enough to finance social programs. Therefore, instead of just fixing eyes on the tax movement, it would be advisable if necessary steps were undertaken to stimulate economic growth, reduce government spending, and exploit more energy resources available in the country, which will subsequently contribute to economic growth, hence pushing taxes down. Works Cited Blodget, Henry. â€Å"The truth about taxes: Here’s how high today’s rates really are†. Business Insider, 12 July 2011. Web. Cohn, Jonathan. â€Å"Can we tolerate higher taxes? Heed the Swedish chef.† The New Republican News, 23 March 2011. Web. Tuttle, Brad. â€Å"7 Odd solutions for 7 common economic problems†. Times Financial Insight, 08 July 2011. Web.Adve rtising Looking for essay on law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This essay on American Tendency of Rising Taxes was written and submitted by user Beckett C. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Prince Obike Essays - Movements For Civil Rights, Free Essays

Prince Obike Essays - Movements For Civil Rights, Free Essays Prince Obike AFRO 133 Dr. Joshua Myers 18 October 2018 There is a River "Vincent Harding's, "There is a River" illustrates the black experience in America while providing a historical summary of how African Americans have struggled for justice in the United States. "There is a River" describes black radicalism by using the river as a metaphor for the black struggle to convey the tradition of black protest and other forms of reaction to white oppression.In Harding's view, the river symbolizes expectation for a greater future for African Americans. African Americans are the river, Harding states that African Americans struggles are "long continuous movement, flowing...sometimes powerful,tumultuous, and rolling with life; and at other times meandering and turgid; covered with ice and snow of seemingly endless winters, all too often streaked and running with blood".Vincent Harding's "There is a River" uses the metaphor of a river to not only describe the complicated experiences of African Americans, but also uses the metaphor to connect the past an d the present predicaments of blacks in America in terms of internal battles within the black community, white hegemonic attacks against black communities and businesses, and ultimately the metaphor can be used as a rallying cry for the future expansion of black rights and dignity. Harding uses the river metaphor to equate water to many existing methods of illustrating the black experience. For example, the river can represent a continuous story of the struggle for civil rights. Water and the river are used as metaphor for freedom. When Harding describes African Americans struggles a a "long continuous movement" such as a river I believe that is also a reference to time. When the North America was first colonized by Europeans, the was a lot of land that needed work. Labour was needed to work the land so that the colonies could begin to profit from the land . Women and men both participated in the labor. It even got to point to where other europeans who were indentured servants were sent over to help with the land. Eventually around the 17th century the europeans decided to send over a boat of slaves to help with the land. The used these slaves to help with crops such as tobacco, which was the America's most profitable crop.By the time the American Revoluti on started and ended the south was flourishing because of how well the tobacco industry was going.This was the spark of a "long continuous movement" because soon after Eli whitney invented the cotton gin. This invention made it possible for textile mills to use the type of cotton most easily grown in the South.With the cotton gin so popular, slaves were needed in large numbers again. At this time white people began to dehumanize African Americans.They argued that black people were similar to children. They believe they were doing African Americans a favor because they were incapable of caring for themselves Not only were they caring for African Americans but that also kept them fed, clothed, and occupied. As time progressed African Americans began to become "radical" and know that they were above what they were being told. The Underground Railroad was organized to help slaves escape north to freedom. After years of "stealing" the freedom they were born with , slaves were "freed" in the year 1863, but their "long continuous movement" along that river was nowhere near finished. The new struggle African Americans have to fight with was segregation. This also ushered in the The Civil Rights Movement, that lasted for years, Even though many of the most important achievements in The Civil Rights Movement happened in the 1950s for African Americans, segregation, and racial acts took place every day. African Americans had been fighting against racial segregation since they were brought to the continent.Although he Civil Rights Movement tried to help with the social, economic, physical and political disadvantages they faced it did not solve the hatred rooted in some individuals hearts. The divide between whites and blacks was so severe that many citizens risked their lives to pursue and gain equal rights for the black population. Even the law was set up against African Americans. A "long continuous movement". We are still flowing down

Ethics in Public Administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Ethics in Public Administration - Essay Example It is commonly described as the study of moral conduct. The term 'moral' as here used covers all conduct which is subject to the judgement of right and wrong. The distinction implied is not between moral and immoral, right and wrong, but between moral and unmoral, i.e., between conduct which has a moral aspect and that which has none. Ethics in public administration suffers from the absence of a theoretical framework to supply focus, definition, background, and a common frame of reference for the research and practice of ethical administration. There seems to be little disagreement that such a framework is lacking. In 1980, Dwight Waldo described the state of moral and ethical behaviour in public administration as "chaotic" (Waldo, 1980: 100). In 1983, James Bowman stated that "in both practice and theory, the ethical implications of administrative and political conduct remain largely unexplored" (Bowman, 1983a:71). Most recently, John Rohr, in presenting a "state of the discipline" report at a major conference, states that "throughout this report I have stressed the diversity in the ethics field; a diversity that comes close to chaos" (Rohr, 1986a:53). Utilitarianism Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is the idea that moral worth of an action is determined solely by its contribution to overall utility: that is, its contribution to happiness or pleasure as summed among all people. It is thus a form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome. Utility, the good to ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS 4 be maximized, has been defined by various thinkers as happiness or pleasure (versus suffering or pain), although preference utilitarians define it as the satisfaction of preferences. It may be described as a life stance, with happiness or pleasure being of ultimate importance. Utilitarianism is described by the phrase "the greatest good for the greatest number of people". Therefore, it is also known as "the greatest happiness principle." Preference Utilitarianism Preference utilitarianism is one of the most popular forms of utlilitarianism in contemporary philosophy. Like other utilitarian theorists, preference utilitarians define a morally right action as that which produces the most favourable consequences for the people involved. However, preference utilatairans interpret the best consequences in terms of ;preference satisfaction'. This means that 'good' is

Business and Management Decision Making BZ Essay

Business and Management Decision Making BZ - Essay Example The hospitality services of the Glasgow University offers a wide range of catering service. The food products and other catering services are offered to a wide range of consumers starting from students, professors and other staffs. This as a result makes it a lucrative business for the University. Moreover, academic departments are also forbidden to outsource food from any other outlets. This as a result, has made them captive customers for the Glasgow University hospitality services. However, the institution also faces significant amount of competition from outlets outside the campus. These outlets include restaurants, pubs and other eateries which are in close proximities from the university campus. This as a result makes it easier for the students and staff to have an alternative option for eating outside the campus. This can be described from a theoretical stand point by highlighting the Porter’s five forces of competition. The Porter (2008) mentioned that the competitive force not only arise from the rivalry among existing firms, but also from four other direction. The Porter five force analyses will help to assess the level of competition faced by the Glasgow University hospitality service. This data will be then utilized to analyse the required changes that are required to make the service offering at par to the desired level. Power of Buyers: The power of buyers can be described in terms of their switching cost, which is indirectly proportional. If the switching cost of the buyers is low, then their bargaining power increases (Dalrymple, 2008). The availability of several restaurants and pubs in the close proximity of the university campus makes it easier for the customers to choose from several available options. However, outsourcings from outside eateries are not allowed in the campus. This as a result, reduces the buyers’ power slightly. Thus, the overall

Economic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Economic - Essay Example For the purpose of maintaining and achieving such stability, however, it uses various tools and strategies which are discussed in the article as well as explained elaborately in the subsequent sections of this paper. Introduction: This article titled â€Å"RBA raises inflation forecast as traders raise rate expectations† written by Michael Boutros, appeared in The Bull, on May 09, 2011 (thebull, 2011). The author is a technical / fundamental currency analyst specializing in the FX markets, and works for DailyFX (fxstreet, 2011). The article discusses the current Australian interest rates stating the RBA's (Reserve Bank of Australia) recent declaration regarding rise in the inflation forecast above the 2-3 per cent target through the year 2013. The Reserve Bank of Australia held rates at 4.75% for a fifth straight meeting. It states that considering the current rates, which are above the expected target, the central bank has very little opportunity to tolerate any further advan ces in its prices. The author predicts that in response to such rising inflation, the RBA might lift its cash rate in the coming months, as the investments in mining and energy sectors rise, which are likely to further accelerate the pace of inflation. Economic concepts and theories to be applied: The article deals with the variation in interest rates and the rising inflation, and discusses the ways and means to control the same. In this regard, the author has suggested tightening the monetary policy, which can be discussed in accordance with the contractionary monetary policy preceded by a brief overview of the monetary policy i.e. both the concept as well as the monetary policy of Australia. The other concepts discussed in this article include Cash Rate, and inflation targeting. Key Definitions: Inflation targeting: According to Bernanke et al., (1999: 4) inflation targeting is a framework for monetary policy characterized by the public announcement of official quantitative target s (or target ranges) for the inflation rate over one or more time horizons, and by explicit acknowledgement that low, stable inflation is monetary policy's primary long-run goal" (in Hufner, 2004: 7) Analysis: Economists often forecast a rise in inflation rates. These forecasts or predictions regarding inflation are based on various factors. One such approach is the standard economic theory which posits that a rise in inflation occurs on account of a downturn in the economy and when the production surpasses the capacity constraints. According to this approach, the measures of an economic downturn, such as capacity utilization or unemployment rates, offer valuable information regarding the manner in which inflation would turn, i.e. rise or fall. However, this is not the only approach to forecasting inflation. The other approach relies on certain key indicators of inflation. These key indicators take into consideration factors such as commodity prices, gold prices, and other composite indicators which are then used to forecast the inflation rates. According to the article, the RBA forecasts inflation to reach 3 per cent by December this year, while the forecast for the year 2013 is estimated to cross 3.25 per cent mark. The following figure indicates the inflation rate

Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool

Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool Abstract The aim of this research is to observe and explain consumers preference for African food in Liverpool. By identifying the attitudes towards African food, evaluating the different factors that affect the availability and accessibility of these foods within the city, the effect of globalisation processes on food production to consumption. Three different theories have been used in this research, the Theory of Reason Action, Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Actor Network Theory and the theory of consumption. The global production network which seeks to identify the geographical spatiality involved in the network process of crossing African foods to UK. The actor-network theory is used to explain the different actors/actants in the global production network. The theories of reasoned action and theory of planned behaviour used in this research intends to explain consumer attitude, preference and behaviour towards African foods. It is however observed that African consumers tend to prefer African traditional meals but this is affected by cost, time and distance. A combination of qualitative and quantitative research method is used to better interpret the outcomes of the result. A total of 150 respondents where interviewed from various part of the city, including students, young adults family etc. Cutting across different age groups. Owners of African food stores and restaurants were interviewed using both structured and semi-structured interview. Individuals were selected randomly, to verify interest in African foods. Chapter 1 Introduction The importance of food as a necessity of life goes beyond physical nourishment. Anthropologist and sociologist emphasize that food practices are prime means through which social relationships are formed. (Johnston et al 2006:272). A familiar saying goes â€Å"we are what we eat†; food links us to the rituals and recipes of previous generations, creating a network between families, wider communities, and the global trading network of producers, distributors and consumers. More so, we are transported into the world of others as we experience the tastes of unknown tradition and cultures. Food choices make profound impact on the environment, health and welfare of others, challenging the ideas of tradition and identity. Travel and immigration have also resulted in the changing and shifting of traditions over the years. National identities have been created also by food traditions in distant lands among people of similar culture and background. Food is an indicator of cultural tradi tions, values, and how food traditions develop and evolve over space and time. Much talk of globalisation of foods have helped in shaping traditions, cultural diversity, social and political economy of places, (Bernstein et al 1990: 9, Tinker 1997: 137, 143) however, not all kinds of food are very welcomed in some places, though may not be stated categorically, it can be observed within cities and communities most probably as result of economic policies, cultural differences, international trading policies. Traditional food is a vital aspect of the African cultural heritage. The production processing sale and distribution of food products enhances cultural and ethnic coherence in communities. Consumers demand for safe and tasteful traditional food products (Cayot, 2007). However, there is also a demand for varieties of ethnic foods in multi-ethnic cities and community. The definition of food encompasses matters of moral and cultural significance, differentiating food products, providers and consumers (Cook et al 1996). Food has always had a long history of constructed associations which involves associations of places and people, and has been used as emblem of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Johnston et al claim that there is no single geographical literature on food with its own coherent themes and problematic, as the study of food is found in economic, political, cultural, social and biological aspects of geography. Therefore food matter does not sit within the confinement of conceptual and spatial boundaries (Johnston 2006: 272). Key issues surrounding topic The speed and reach of globalisation, travel and trade, bring all kinds of diverse foods together. This has however affected the definitions of particular national food culture (Murray). The influence of travel and migration can be seen on major streets and cities in United Kingdom with a rich mixture of nationalities, Indian curry houses, Jewish Bagel shops, Chinese buffets restaurant, Italian restaurant, Mexican among others. However, the presence of African food restaurants seems not a loud as the others considering the long standing history of Blacks in the city. The absence of physical representation of the African food culture around the city especially in everyday cultural display such as in food, as compared to the Asian presence of Chinese, Indian, Thai, Mexican cuisines and other ethnic group in Liverpool raises questions of demand and supply. The most important representation so far is the International Slavery museum at the docks and black slave sculptures that are displayed around historical places in the city, which are only representations of past history and geography and not a total representation of the African culture in recent times. Ethnic minority consumers quest for cultural identity is perceived in the food culture of the group in concern. Commercial globalisation has renewed interest in the relationship between culture and traditional norms and values (James 1890). This pursuit for identity among most migrants to the western world is pronounced in their choice of food (Bauman2000). This research seeks to observe trends in African consumer behaviour and attitude toward African food in United Kingdom, using Liverpool as a case study. In trying to observe and evaluate these trends, certain issues have provided a background for this study, one of which is the re-materializing of postcolonial geographies as it affects Africans in a foreign country. African migrants attitude and food choice behaviour have been affected by certain factors, government and institutional policies of cutting across various levels of trading activities. In determining a consumers preference towards food related behaviours, convenience, as a food attribute, has been described as being as important as taste, health and price (Candel, 2001). However, the availability and accessibility of food influence consumers preference as different values are considered in understanding why consumers make certain food choice. Food choice is a complex phenomenon with many interacting events determining which foods are eaten by the individual at a particular time and place. (Shepherd 1989.) The failure of African foods to cross over into United Kingdom mainstream market has pointed to issues of production, preservation and transportation of African foods into the United Kingdom. International trade policies and barriers by OECD countries, farm subsidies have all been major setbacks to the availability of African food stuff in the United Kingdom. Chapter 1 literature review: theories of consumer perception, Chapter 2 how do Africans perceive African foods and other foods, what do Africans think about the origin of their food and the patriotic nature of Africans towards their food, the first experience of food, generational experience of food. Chapter 3 methodology: theories of research methods. Chapter 4 Chapter 5 result and discussions: background history of black Liverpool, map and population census 2001 of Africans in Liverpool, identifying African business and Questionnaires and interview analysis, Chapter 6 trade relations between African countries and UK CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW This literature review looks at the studies that have been done in areas of food preference as it concerns culture, food identity, food preference and quality. The second section will review theories employed in the research and the importance of global production networks. Catherine Dolan and John Humphrey (2000) used Global commodity chain as networks where the decision-maker influences the output of chains and composition governance in their paper ‘governance and trade in fresh vegetables. Their study does not recognise the identity of commodity and consumer as a factor in buyer driven commodity, evaluating the geography of space. This research explores the ethnic identity of consumer as a major actor in global commodity chain networks. The buyers themselves being of African nationality purchase food stuff from the local food store or African food restaurants which receive their supplies from importers of African foods in major cities like London and Manchester. The connection therefore is from the African farmers who grow the foods, to major exporter or importer as the case maybe, to the shelves food store and tables of the restaurant then consumed by Africans who live several miles away from their home country. The cultural identity of the co nsumers becomes a vital connection to the market, because consumers also make demand on the desired food choice. Consumers access to these foods becomes important to the continuity of this trade. Ben Fine (1993) defines commodity chains as â€Å"the commodity-specific chain connecting production, distribution, marketing and consumption and material culture surrounding these elements†, in the study of systems of provision (fine 1993:600). This approach acknowledges the importance of commodities as a possibility of more balanced treatment of the relationship between production and consumption (Crewe 2000). Studies have explored how networks of embedded firms are offering the potential for the more equitable relations between retailer and suppliers, through the sharing of knowledge as market intelligence and labour. (Crewe 1996, Scott 1996, Crewe and Beaverstock 1998). Other study have considered the creative dimension of domestic consumption, and the ways in which consumer good s are actively appropriated in the everyday spaces of the home, however, Domosh examines the reclamation of the home and the domestic space as key consumption site. But it does not take into account the origin of the commodities and how it relates to space for consumption (Domosh 1998). Cook and Crang, explore ways in which geographical knowledge about products invoke a â€Å"double commodity fetishism†. This is the idea in which consumer knowledge are limited by spatially distanciated systems of provision. (Laying emphasis on geographical knowledge about widely sources of food commodities and process through which food is supplied). This work highlights cultural means of places and spaces. Cook and Crang (1996), further explores the global extensive networks and flows of food, people and culinary knowledge embedded in cosmopolitan London. Suggesting that â€Å"cultural mosaic† (Friedman, 1994), conceptualise cultural geographies as bounded cultural regions where constructed associations between food, places and peoples, associations epitomising the conceptions of national, regional and local cuisines. Also describes food as emblems and markers of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Cook et al (1998), in seeking the articulation of the geographies of culture looks at how figure displacement can be used to suggest process of food consumption are cast as local, the connections of food consumption to networks, which extend beyond delimiting boundaries of particular places. Again, in a closely related study, Cook reflects on the biography and geographies of food. A definition of food as having their own biographies, studies the connection of consumer knowledge about the geographical origins of the food they consume and what roles it plays in food choice and consumption (Cook et al 1998). He concludes in a suggestion that knowledge can potentially be a significant factor in food choice and preference. Much research has been done on Caribbean foods within and outside United Kingdom, probably due to the influx of Caribbean foods into United Kingdom market in the mid 1990s, when it became the ethnic cuisine to go mainstream after the Chinese, Indian and Tex Mex (Cook et al 2003). The complex history of the Caribbeans produced a regional cuisine which had overlapped with the Indian and Chinese foods that were on top of international cuisines in the United Kingdom. The region had also become tourist centres to Europeans and a large interest of the Caribbean lifestyle and delicacies reflected on the shelves of UK supermarkets, in addition to the projected images by celebrity chefs, and companies who increased the exports to satisfy the demand of this market in the mid nineties (Cook et al 2003). This also reflected in Caribbean centres established in major cities and streets in the UK. Cook and Harrison examine debate over the failure of Caribbean food to cross over into the UK mainstream. The paper review mosaic and theories of culture as fundamental difference between a white â€Å"mainstream† and black â€Å"ethnic other† as part problems of this failure. (Cook and Harrison 2003). Understandings of postcolonial geographies of material culture and its contributions to the undermining of, and resistance to forms of colonial dominations that persist in contemporary global capitalist relationships as can be found in food trade relations between the ‘third world and the ‘west. The study uses the example of the corporate history of Grace, Kennedy and Co, a company that preferred to cater for the needs of UK ethnic minority and the third world consumers, instead of prioritising cross over in to UK mainstream market. Friedberg research of modern historical geography of food in Burkina Faso shows how agricultural policies, dietary preferences health concerns, helped to transform regional diet, landscape and economy, resulting to temporal and spatial patterns of daily life in Burkina Faso. The study observes the incorporation of Burkina Faso into the globalised market economy as a result of luxury food (French beans), not leaving out the expectation of food quality safety standards (Friedberg 2003). The study also observes the changing geographies of the meaning of food, suggesting how historical study of food consumption takes place outside formal market economy. Gaps in current research Studies on firms by management oriented researchers have been focused more on companies in developed economies, central and Eastern Europe, small and local food production firms in Africa and their business counterparts even in developed economies have received less attention in the study of economic development. Past researches remained outside social science mainstream therefore have not been influenced by general discourses especially in the field of economic geography. Feminist researchers who have done research in the developing world have only concentrated on gender-related issues in the developing nations rather than with broader questions of small, local and industrial organisations and economic development (Henderson et al 2002:437). The major issues of trade liberalization have affected the cross over of African food and with the increase of safety standard procedures by the UK govt. The challenges of small business and the cost of food as also other major issues that will be discussed. In examining the geographical knowledge about food, actors associated with food, which involves location and situatedness of food, the networks and flows of food and people are major debates around the accessibility of these foods. According to Cook et al the long-running history of interconnections between people and places; and the increasing consciousness of the compression of the economic, political, cultural world, and the production of the world as a single place are two major contentions of globalisation debates (Cook et al 1996). London is said to be promoted as a space of ‘global post-modern (Hall, 1991: 32) by the staging and reconstruction of cultural difference in ‘globalisation diversity (Pieterse, 1995:45 as cited Cook 1996), arguably, Liverpool being proclaimed as the ‘world in one city though with characteristic history of local culture is yet to produce a matching representation of modern diversity of the African culture with the exception of the In ternational Slavery museum. Post colonial issues around African cultural heritage in Liverpool will enhance globalisation diversity as represented in food, arts and cultural of the African food biography and origin. Global Production networks Global production networks emphasize the need to refocus attention on the social circumstances under which commodities are produced and consumed† (Dickens et al 2002 pg 444). It takes into account, the process of production-(can be from the farm stage, harvest, labour technology, processing in Africa, transportation, UK standardization, repackaging, supply and distribution,) which do not always follow a chain link but a complex network process, over time and space and distance to consumption. The GPN framework allows for a greater complexity and geographical variation in producer-consumer relation, this in turn enhances the ability to reveal how certain key knowledge ‘circulate between producers, consumers and intermediaries. It also reveals complex social geographies as agents located in different places can be seen to combine to influence the production process (Henderson et al 2002:445). In all, this research seeks to answer the following questions: †¢ Research Questions? To what extent does the demand of African food affect its availability? What impact does African food trade make on the supply of these foods? How have African food stores and restaurants faired with migration of Africans in Liverpool? Preference is described by Babicz-Zielinska as â€Å"a general predisposition for a particular food, independent of the eating situation, and expressed by degree of liking or disliking of the food, desired food frequency or fraction of subjects selecting the food as a response to its name†(Babicz-Zielinska 1999:139). The choice of food depends on factors that influence human behaviour, which in turn affects the rejection of some food and acceptance of others. A classification based on current food-choice models is used to explain certain attributes of food choice is made by Babicz-Zielinska (Babicz-Zielinska 1999:138) 1. Production-related factors- which could be physical and chemical properties of food, sensory attributes, functional features(labelling, availability) nutritional value; or 2. Consumer-related factors- personal features, (age, gender, psychological factors, experience, personality), physiological factors (health) or 3. Environment-related factors- economic factors (price and income), cultural factors (beliefs, social factors- social status and fashion. Consumer-related factors and environment-related factors will be area of concern in this research. Factors of food choice survey was conducted in European Community EC countries, and it showed that quality/freshness, taste, selecting a healthy diet, price, family preferences and habits belong to the most important choice factors, (Lennernas et al 1997) Behavioural research methodologies are usually used to ascertain the underlying factors that determine food-related behaviour, reason being that food choice and consumption are natural and integrated part of human behaviour (Mahon et al 2006:474). The theory of reasoned action The theory of reasoned action has received attention within the field of consumer behaviour. (Sheppard et al 1988). The theory of reasoned action studies attitude and behaviour (Ajzen Fishbein 1980). It observes behavioural intention, attitude and subjective norm. According to Fishbein and Ajzen, a persons behaviour is guided by the persons attitude towards the behaviour and the subjective norm. For example, Africans tend to eat hot, spicy and tasty food, so when they find themselves away from ‘home, they look for their regular food, or something very close to the kind of food they have been used to, the alternative in this case could mean the Caribbean cuisine which also has its origin from African foods, or the Spanish or Mexican spicy foods as found in UK. However the cost also plays a determining role in making food choice, this shall be explained in detail in later chapter. Miller 2005 defines attitude, subjective norm, and behavioural intentions as the 3 components of the theory of reasoned action. Attitude: The sum of beliefs about a particular behaviour weighted by evaluation of these beliefs. Subjective norms. This looks at the influence of people in ones social environment on his/her behavioural intentions. Behavioural intention. This is a function of both attitudes towards behaviour and subjective norms towards that behaviour which has been found to predict actual behaviour. The theory of planned behaviour is adopted to explain consumer behaviour towards African food. The other alternative in this research is the British food, considering different factors that affect the choice of food. Human behaviour is explained and predicted by the theory of planned behaviour in understanding beliefs and attitudes. Ajzen et al 1986, explains that TPB is an extension of the TRA. The theory of planned behaviour was developed as a third predictor of behaviour, perceived behavioural control, (Mahon et al 2006:475). Perceived behavioural control reflects beliefs regarding the access to resources and opportunities needed to perform a behaviour (Chiou, 1998 as cited in Mahon 2006 pg 475). The availability of resources needed to engage in the behaviour such as money, time and other resources, the focal person self confidence in their ability to conduct the behaviour are two major reflections of the theory of planned behaviour. The theory of consumer preference. Consumers have set of preferences which are dependent upon individual tastes, education, culture and other factors, apart from the economic factor. These factors are measured for particular goods in terms of the real opportunity cost to the consumer who purchases and consumes the goods. Consumer level of satisfaction of a particular kind of food is determined by what the consumer defines as â€Å"satisfaction†. However, consumers are constrained in their choices of foods by income, accessibility of goods and also the price that the consumer is willing to pay for his food. Consumer preferences are defined as the subjective taste as measured by utility-(where utility is the satisfaction that a consumer derives from the consumption of a good) of various bundles of goods. Preferences help consumer to prioritize bundles of goods according to the levels of utility that they give the consumer. However, these preferences are not dependent on income and prices only. The ability for a consumer to purchase certain kind of food does not always determine a consumers like or dislike over another food. For example, an African consumer in Liverpool can have a preference for African foods over British foods but only has the financial means to buy British meals more often. There are certain assumptions of consumers preference theory, which will be further looked into, the assumption of decisiveness, consistency, non-satiation, convexity. Actor network theory. ANT, a social theory pioneered by Michel Callon (1986), Bruno Latour (1987) and John Law (1987), conceptualize social interactions in terms of networks. This includes the material environment and human causes. The concept of ANT acknowledges the importance of both material and human factors in networks. The theory conveys the idea that the actor does not act ‘on his own but only under the influence of complex network of material and human influences. For example, the process involved in making African foods available is not just caused human factors, but also by production, technology, society, extended politics of trade and culture, all affecting the accessibility and availability of the foods. According to Callon (1986) materials causes as well as human actors may be determinants of the social interactions and outcomes (Callon 1986). According to Henderson 2002, ANT emphasize the relationality of object and agency in heterogeneous networks, in other words, entities in network s are shaped by and can only be understood through their relations and connectivity to other entities(Law, 1999:4 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). Again, space and distance are observed as ‘spatial fields and relational scopes of influence, power and connectivity (Harvey, 1969; Murdoch 1998 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). According to Nancy Vanhouse, ANT has to approaches, ‘follow the actor, through interviews and ethnographic research and through examining inscriptions. Inscriptions including texts, but also images of many sorts, databases, and the like are central to knowledge work. Some (e.g., Latour and Woolgar, 1991; Callon, Law, and Rip, 1986) say that texts (including journal articles, conference papers and presentations, grant proposals, and patents) are among the major, if not the major, products of scientific work. Inscriptions make action at a distance possible by stabilizing work in such a way that it can travel across space and time and be combined with other work. Texts are also central to the process of gaining credibility. They carry work to other people and institutions. They attempt to present work in such a way that its meaning and significance are irrefutable. And texts are where authors establish equivalences among problems, which Callon et al. (1986) identifies as a major strategy of enrolling others. An important part of the standard journal article or grant application, for example, is to say, in essence, If you are interested in X (major issue) you must be interested in Y, which is the topic of the work reported/proposed here. References Latour, B. and Woolgar, S. (1991). Laboratory life: the construction of scientific facts, intro by Salk, J., Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press Callon, Michel, John Law, and Arie Rip, eds. Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology: Sociology of Science in the Real World. London: Macmillan Press, 1986. Actor network theory has become very helpful in understanding connections between places and space. Its insistency on non human factor in network production Supply chain and bottleneck bureaucracy of the supply of food products from Africa into the UK makes it more difficult for the availability of this food. This furthermore widens the distance/gap between consumers and suppliers/retailers. The length of this chain affects. The quality assurance schemes, production and manufacturing to retailers protocols and the application of quality management system and standard such as HACCP and ISO series are various ways of cutting supplies. Bottlenecks of food quality and safety standards in food processing and distribution. The HACCP systems are used in specific export sectors in Africa, an example is the EU quality standard for fish in Uganda is based on EU directive 91/493/EEC and on Codex Alimentarius (Trienekens et al 2008:116) covering areas of microbiology level, pesticides residues, heavy metals, effluents, Good manufacturing practices (processing stage) and HACCP (processing stage) (Ssemwanga, 2003 as cited in Trienekens et al 2008:116). Kenya adheres to UK food and safety Act of 1990, more so testing laboratories are accredited to ISO 17025; 2000 by United Kingdom Accreditation services (UKAS) (Kari 2003), the high deportation rate of this products on western markets shows the fragility of the systems. As pesticides residues are discovered in the product. Other systems used for processors and packers of fish for exports are GMP, ISO 90002. The proliferation of standards by western markets creates a barrier for the application of standards by developing countries producers. The lack of enabling environment in which infrastructure facilities are absent in African countries is also a major setback. African countries are still discovering quality and safety of food as important condition for international food trade (Trieneken et al 2008:117). Building of facilities, government structures to improve and ensure quality and safety of products are still key agenda of attention. The importance of transportation, preservation (cooled system of transport) and storage are very vital to international trade. African countries are still at the phase of establishing the right conditions to enforce food quality and safety of the other products. According to Trieneken et al- many developing countries do not have skilled labour and laboratory facilities, this however limits good- quality management, making difficult. Small and medium size business, from developing countries find difficult or almost impossible to comply with standard required in western markets (Dinham, 2003, Unnevehr, 2002). Due to barriers created by SPS and TBT in exporting foods, from developing countries do not have the adequate information and most likely unaware of specific demand of western standards for trade. The heterogeneous standard in developed economies also poses a problem, as continues differ to country and market also differ. The cost of certification is too much for develop countries to bear. Most African food products are unable to adapt to the rigorous requirements of modern supply chain, either through scale enterprise or lack of knowledge or financial constraints, become non-competitive. The myriad of innovations and development has made the process of food supply chain increase in productivity. The combine technology of accurate weighing, refrigeration controlled atmospheric bacterial growth inhibition, pasteurisation, micro-element pollutant detection, bar-coding, electronic recognition of packaging, the use of stabilizers etc, has also contributed to the difficulty in having African food cross over, as most business may not be financially equipped enough for the volume of the trading. Christopher (1999) notes that the supply chain management evolves around the partnership developed in the chain and is supported by information technology applications that co-ordinate information dissemination and sharing amongst the chain members. This research has revealed that most home cooked food are prepared under high hygienic conditions, as cooking is monitored by consumer themselves problems with calories consumptions that affect the health of consumer is also under check, compared to the perceptions about eating fast food at convenience KFC and MacDonalds. This is one reason for the preference of African food among black consumer. One of the major problems of availability of African foods in UK is the problem of access into the country. Developing countries especially in Africa find it difficult to meet the food safety standards imposed by the UK/developing countries. Food safety standards which were originally set up to keep food for quality and safe consumption, by government of different countries are being used as trade impeding protectionist tools.(Jongwanich 2009:1). Food safety standards are usually to the disadvantage of developing countries, due to their limits capacity to access and use technology and information. International trade negotiations have experience setbacks for developing countries in recent years due to a demand for more stringent SPS in developed countries, which is as a result of increase in health consciousness and rising incomes. Before now, tariffs and quantitative restrictions are the trade barriers and impediments that affect export from developing countries to developed countri es, but in recent times, food safety standards have become tool for protectionist to block trade(Jongwanich 2009: Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool Abstract The aim of this research is to observe and explain consumers preference for African food in Liverpool. By identifying the attitudes towards African food, evaluating the different factors that affect the availability and accessibility of these foods within the city, the effect of globalisation processes on food production to consumption. Three different theories have been used in this research, the Theory of Reason Action, Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Actor Network Theory and the theory of consumption. The global production network which seeks to identify the geographical spatiality involved in the network process of crossing African foods to UK. The actor-network theory is used to explain the different actors/actants in the global production network. The theories of reasoned action and theory of planned behaviour used in this research intends to explain consumer attitude, preference and behaviour towards African foods. It is however observed that African consumers tend to prefer African traditional meals but this is affected by cost, time and distance. A combination of qualitative and quantitative research method is used to better interpret the outcomes of the result. A total of 150 respondents where interviewed from various part of the city, including students, young adults family etc. Cutting across different age groups. Owners of African food stores and restaurants were interviewed using both structured and semi-structured interview. Individuals were selected randomly, to verify interest in African foods. Chapter 1 Introduction The importance of food as a necessity of life goes beyond physical nourishment. Anthropologist and sociologist emphasize that food practices are prime means through which social relationships are formed. (Johnston et al 2006:272). A familiar saying goes â€Å"we are what we eat†; food links us to the rituals and recipes of previous generations, creating a network between families, wider communities, and the global trading network of producers, distributors and consumers. More so, we are transported into the world of others as we experience the tastes of unknown tradition and cultures. Food choices make profound impact on the environment, health and welfare of others, challenging the ideas of tradition and identity. Travel and immigration have also resulted in the changing and shifting of traditions over the years. National identities have been created also by food traditions in distant lands among people of similar culture and background. Food is an indicator of cultural tradi tions, values, and how food traditions develop and evolve over space and time. Much talk of globalisation of foods have helped in shaping traditions, cultural diversity, social and political economy of places, (Bernstein et al 1990: 9, Tinker 1997: 137, 143) however, not all kinds of food are very welcomed in some places, though may not be stated categorically, it can be observed within cities and communities most probably as result of economic policies, cultural differences, international trading policies. Traditional food is a vital aspect of the African cultural heritage. The production processing sale and distribution of food products enhances cultural and ethnic coherence in communities. Consumers demand for safe and tasteful traditional food products (Cayot, 2007). However, there is also a demand for varieties of ethnic foods in multi-ethnic cities and community. The definition of food encompasses matters of moral and cultural significance, differentiating food products, providers and consumers (Cook et al 1996). Food has always had a long history of constructed associations which involves associations of places and people, and has been used as emblem of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Johnston et al claim that there is no single geographical literature on food with its own coherent themes and problematic, as the study of food is found in economic, political, cultural, social and biological aspects of geography. Therefore food matter does not sit within the confinement of conceptual and spatial boundaries (Johnston 2006: 272). Key issues surrounding topic The speed and reach of globalisation, travel and trade, bring all kinds of diverse foods together. This has however affected the definitions of particular national food culture (Murray). The influence of travel and migration can be seen on major streets and cities in United Kingdom with a rich mixture of nationalities, Indian curry houses, Jewish Bagel shops, Chinese buffets restaurant, Italian restaurant, Mexican among others. However, the presence of African food restaurants seems not a loud as the others considering the long standing history of Blacks in the city. The absence of physical representation of the African food culture around the city especially in everyday cultural display such as in food, as compared to the Asian presence of Chinese, Indian, Thai, Mexican cuisines and other ethnic group in Liverpool raises questions of demand and supply. The most important representation so far is the International Slavery museum at the docks and black slave sculptures that are displayed around historical places in the city, which are only representations of past history and geography and not a total representation of the African culture in recent times. Ethnic minority consumers quest for cultural identity is perceived in the food culture of the group in concern. Commercial globalisation has renewed interest in the relationship between culture and traditional norms and values (James 1890). This pursuit for identity among most migrants to the western world is pronounced in their choice of food (Bauman2000). This research seeks to observe trends in African consumer behaviour and attitude toward African food in United Kingdom, using Liverpool as a case study. In trying to observe and evaluate these trends, certain issues have provided a background for this study, one of which is the re-materializing of postcolonial geographies as it affects Africans in a foreign country. African migrants attitude and food choice behaviour have been affected by certain factors, government and institutional policies of cutting across various levels of trading activities. In determining a consumers preference towards food related behaviours, convenience, as a food attribute, has been described as being as important as taste, health and price (Candel, 2001). However, the availability and accessibility of food influence consumers preference as different values are considered in understanding why consumers make certain food choice. Food choice is a complex phenomenon with many interacting events determining which foods are eaten by the individual at a particular time and place. (Shepherd 1989.) The failure of African foods to cross over into United Kingdom mainstream market has pointed to issues of production, preservation and transportation of African foods into the United Kingdom. International trade policies and barriers by OECD countries, farm subsidies have all been major setbacks to the availability of African food stuff in the United Kingdom. Chapter 1 literature review: theories of consumer perception, Chapter 2 how do Africans perceive African foods and other foods, what do Africans think about the origin of their food and the patriotic nature of Africans towards their food, the first experience of food, generational experience of food. Chapter 3 methodology: theories of research methods. Chapter 4 Chapter 5 result and discussions: background history of black Liverpool, map and population census 2001 of Africans in Liverpool, identifying African business and Questionnaires and interview analysis, Chapter 6 trade relations between African countries and UK CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW This literature review looks at the studies that have been done in areas of food preference as it concerns culture, food identity, food preference and quality. The second section will review theories employed in the research and the importance of global production networks. Catherine Dolan and John Humphrey (2000) used Global commodity chain as networks where the decision-maker influences the output of chains and composition governance in their paper ‘governance and trade in fresh vegetables. Their study does not recognise the identity of commodity and consumer as a factor in buyer driven commodity, evaluating the geography of space. This research explores the ethnic identity of consumer as a major actor in global commodity chain networks. The buyers themselves being of African nationality purchase food stuff from the local food store or African food restaurants which receive their supplies from importers of African foods in major cities like London and Manchester. The connection therefore is from the African farmers who grow the foods, to major exporter or importer as the case maybe, to the shelves food store and tables of the restaurant then consumed by Africans who live several miles away from their home country. The cultural identity of the co nsumers becomes a vital connection to the market, because consumers also make demand on the desired food choice. Consumers access to these foods becomes important to the continuity of this trade. Ben Fine (1993) defines commodity chains as â€Å"the commodity-specific chain connecting production, distribution, marketing and consumption and material culture surrounding these elements†, in the study of systems of provision (fine 1993:600). This approach acknowledges the importance of commodities as a possibility of more balanced treatment of the relationship between production and consumption (Crewe 2000). Studies have explored how networks of embedded firms are offering the potential for the more equitable relations between retailer and suppliers, through the sharing of knowledge as market intelligence and labour. (Crewe 1996, Scott 1996, Crewe and Beaverstock 1998). Other study have considered the creative dimension of domestic consumption, and the ways in which consumer good s are actively appropriated in the everyday spaces of the home, however, Domosh examines the reclamation of the home and the domestic space as key consumption site. But it does not take into account the origin of the commodities and how it relates to space for consumption (Domosh 1998). Cook and Crang, explore ways in which geographical knowledge about products invoke a â€Å"double commodity fetishism†. This is the idea in which consumer knowledge are limited by spatially distanciated systems of provision. (Laying emphasis on geographical knowledge about widely sources of food commodities and process through which food is supplied). This work highlights cultural means of places and spaces. Cook and Crang (1996), further explores the global extensive networks and flows of food, people and culinary knowledge embedded in cosmopolitan London. Suggesting that â€Å"cultural mosaic† (Friedman, 1994), conceptualise cultural geographies as bounded cultural regions where constructed associations between food, places and peoples, associations epitomising the conceptions of national, regional and local cuisines. Also describes food as emblems and markers of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Cook et al (1998), in seeking the articulation of the geographies of culture looks at how figure displacement can be used to suggest process of food consumption are cast as local, the connections of food consumption to networks, which extend beyond delimiting boundaries of particular places. Again, in a closely related study, Cook reflects on the biography and geographies of food. A definition of food as having their own biographies, studies the connection of consumer knowledge about the geographical origins of the food they consume and what roles it plays in food choice and consumption (Cook et al 1998). He concludes in a suggestion that knowledge can potentially be a significant factor in food choice and preference. Much research has been done on Caribbean foods within and outside United Kingdom, probably due to the influx of Caribbean foods into United Kingdom market in the mid 1990s, when it became the ethnic cuisine to go mainstream after the Chinese, Indian and Tex Mex (Cook et al 2003). The complex history of the Caribbeans produced a regional cuisine which had overlapped with the Indian and Chinese foods that were on top of international cuisines in the United Kingdom. The region had also become tourist centres to Europeans and a large interest of the Caribbean lifestyle and delicacies reflected on the shelves of UK supermarkets, in addition to the projected images by celebrity chefs, and companies who increased the exports to satisfy the demand of this market in the mid nineties (Cook et al 2003). This also reflected in Caribbean centres established in major cities and streets in the UK. Cook and Harrison examine debate over the failure of Caribbean food to cross over into the UK mainstream. The paper review mosaic and theories of culture as fundamental difference between a white â€Å"mainstream† and black â€Å"ethnic other† as part problems of this failure. (Cook and Harrison 2003). Understandings of postcolonial geographies of material culture and its contributions to the undermining of, and resistance to forms of colonial dominations that persist in contemporary global capitalist relationships as can be found in food trade relations between the ‘third world and the ‘west. The study uses the example of the corporate history of Grace, Kennedy and Co, a company that preferred to cater for the needs of UK ethnic minority and the third world consumers, instead of prioritising cross over in to UK mainstream market. Friedberg research of modern historical geography of food in Burkina Faso shows how agricultural policies, dietary preferences health concerns, helped to transform regional diet, landscape and economy, resulting to temporal and spatial patterns of daily life in Burkina Faso. The study observes the incorporation of Burkina Faso into the globalised market economy as a result of luxury food (French beans), not leaving out the expectation of food quality safety standards (Friedberg 2003). The study also observes the changing geographies of the meaning of food, suggesting how historical study of food consumption takes place outside formal market economy. Gaps in current research Studies on firms by management oriented researchers have been focused more on companies in developed economies, central and Eastern Europe, small and local food production firms in Africa and their business counterparts even in developed economies have received less attention in the study of economic development. Past researches remained outside social science mainstream therefore have not been influenced by general discourses especially in the field of economic geography. Feminist researchers who have done research in the developing world have only concentrated on gender-related issues in the developing nations rather than with broader questions of small, local and industrial organisations and economic development (Henderson et al 2002:437). The major issues of trade liberalization have affected the cross over of African food and with the increase of safety standard procedures by the UK govt. The challenges of small business and the cost of food as also other major issues that will be discussed. In examining the geographical knowledge about food, actors associated with food, which involves location and situatedness of food, the networks and flows of food and people are major debates around the accessibility of these foods. According to Cook et al the long-running history of interconnections between people and places; and the increasing consciousness of the compression of the economic, political, cultural world, and the production of the world as a single place are two major contentions of globalisation debates (Cook et al 1996). London is said to be promoted as a space of ‘global post-modern (Hall, 1991: 32) by the staging and reconstruction of cultural difference in ‘globalisation diversity (Pieterse, 1995:45 as cited Cook 1996), arguably, Liverpool being proclaimed as the ‘world in one city though with characteristic history of local culture is yet to produce a matching representation of modern diversity of the African culture with the exception of the In ternational Slavery museum. Post colonial issues around African cultural heritage in Liverpool will enhance globalisation diversity as represented in food, arts and cultural of the African food biography and origin. Global Production networks Global production networks emphasize the need to refocus attention on the social circumstances under which commodities are produced and consumed† (Dickens et al 2002 pg 444). It takes into account, the process of production-(can be from the farm stage, harvest, labour technology, processing in Africa, transportation, UK standardization, repackaging, supply and distribution,) which do not always follow a chain link but a complex network process, over time and space and distance to consumption. The GPN framework allows for a greater complexity and geographical variation in producer-consumer relation, this in turn enhances the ability to reveal how certain key knowledge ‘circulate between producers, consumers and intermediaries. It also reveals complex social geographies as agents located in different places can be seen to combine to influence the production process (Henderson et al 2002:445). In all, this research seeks to answer the following questions: †¢ Research Questions? To what extent does the demand of African food affect its availability? What impact does African food trade make on the supply of these foods? How have African food stores and restaurants faired with migration of Africans in Liverpool? Preference is described by Babicz-Zielinska as â€Å"a general predisposition for a particular food, independent of the eating situation, and expressed by degree of liking or disliking of the food, desired food frequency or fraction of subjects selecting the food as a response to its name†(Babicz-Zielinska 1999:139). The choice of food depends on factors that influence human behaviour, which in turn affects the rejection of some food and acceptance of others. A classification based on current food-choice models is used to explain certain attributes of food choice is made by Babicz-Zielinska (Babicz-Zielinska 1999:138) 1. Production-related factors- which could be physical and chemical properties of food, sensory attributes, functional features(labelling, availability) nutritional value; or 2. Consumer-related factors- personal features, (age, gender, psychological factors, experience, personality), physiological factors (health) or 3. Environment-related factors- economic factors (price and income), cultural factors (beliefs, social factors- social status and fashion. Consumer-related factors and environment-related factors will be area of concern in this research. Factors of food choice survey was conducted in European Community EC countries, and it showed that quality/freshness, taste, selecting a healthy diet, price, family preferences and habits belong to the most important choice factors, (Lennernas et al 1997) Behavioural research methodologies are usually used to ascertain the underlying factors that determine food-related behaviour, reason being that food choice and consumption are natural and integrated part of human behaviour (Mahon et al 2006:474). The theory of reasoned action The theory of reasoned action has received attention within the field of consumer behaviour. (Sheppard et al 1988). The theory of reasoned action studies attitude and behaviour (Ajzen Fishbein 1980). It observes behavioural intention, attitude and subjective norm. According to Fishbein and Ajzen, a persons behaviour is guided by the persons attitude towards the behaviour and the subjective norm. For example, Africans tend to eat hot, spicy and tasty food, so when they find themselves away from ‘home, they look for their regular food, or something very close to the kind of food they have been used to, the alternative in this case could mean the Caribbean cuisine which also has its origin from African foods, or the Spanish or Mexican spicy foods as found in UK. However the cost also plays a determining role in making food choice, this shall be explained in detail in later chapter. Miller 2005 defines attitude, subjective norm, and behavioural intentions as the 3 components of the theory of reasoned action. Attitude: The sum of beliefs about a particular behaviour weighted by evaluation of these beliefs. Subjective norms. This looks at the influence of people in ones social environment on his/her behavioural intentions. Behavioural intention. This is a function of both attitudes towards behaviour and subjective norms towards that behaviour which has been found to predict actual behaviour. The theory of planned behaviour is adopted to explain consumer behaviour towards African food. The other alternative in this research is the British food, considering different factors that affect the choice of food. Human behaviour is explained and predicted by the theory of planned behaviour in understanding beliefs and attitudes. Ajzen et al 1986, explains that TPB is an extension of the TRA. The theory of planned behaviour was developed as a third predictor of behaviour, perceived behavioural control, (Mahon et al 2006:475). Perceived behavioural control reflects beliefs regarding the access to resources and opportunities needed to perform a behaviour (Chiou, 1998 as cited in Mahon 2006 pg 475). The availability of resources needed to engage in the behaviour such as money, time and other resources, the focal person self confidence in their ability to conduct the behaviour are two major reflections of the theory of planned behaviour. The theory of consumer preference. Consumers have set of preferences which are dependent upon individual tastes, education, culture and other factors, apart from the economic factor. These factors are measured for particular goods in terms of the real opportunity cost to the consumer who purchases and consumes the goods. Consumer level of satisfaction of a particular kind of food is determined by what the consumer defines as â€Å"satisfaction†. However, consumers are constrained in their choices of foods by income, accessibility of goods and also the price that the consumer is willing to pay for his food. Consumer preferences are defined as the subjective taste as measured by utility-(where utility is the satisfaction that a consumer derives from the consumption of a good) of various bundles of goods. Preferences help consumer to prioritize bundles of goods according to the levels of utility that they give the consumer. However, these preferences are not dependent on income and prices only. The ability for a consumer to purchase certain kind of food does not always determine a consumers like or dislike over another food. For example, an African consumer in Liverpool can have a preference for African foods over British foods but only has the financial means to buy British meals more often. There are certain assumptions of consumers preference theory, which will be further looked into, the assumption of decisiveness, consistency, non-satiation, convexity. Actor network theory. ANT, a social theory pioneered by Michel Callon (1986), Bruno Latour (1987) and John Law (1987), conceptualize social interactions in terms of networks. This includes the material environment and human causes. The concept of ANT acknowledges the importance of both material and human factors in networks. The theory conveys the idea that the actor does not act ‘on his own but only under the influence of complex network of material and human influences. For example, the process involved in making African foods available is not just caused human factors, but also by production, technology, society, extended politics of trade and culture, all affecting the accessibility and availability of the foods. According to Callon (1986) materials causes as well as human actors may be determinants of the social interactions and outcomes (Callon 1986). According to Henderson 2002, ANT emphasize the relationality of object and agency in heterogeneous networks, in other words, entities in network s are shaped by and can only be understood through their relations and connectivity to other entities(Law, 1999:4 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). Again, space and distance are observed as ‘spatial fields and relational scopes of influence, power and connectivity (Harvey, 1969; Murdoch 1998 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). According to Nancy Vanhouse, ANT has to approaches, ‘follow the actor, through interviews and ethnographic research and through examining inscriptions. Inscriptions including texts, but also images of many sorts, databases, and the like are central to knowledge work. Some (e.g., Latour and Woolgar, 1991; Callon, Law, and Rip, 1986) say that texts (including journal articles, conference papers and presentations, grant proposals, and patents) are among the major, if not the major, products of scientific work. Inscriptions make action at a distance possible by stabilizing work in such a way that it can travel across space and time and be combined with other work. Texts are also central to the process of gaining credibility. They carry work to other people and institutions. They attempt to present work in such a way that its meaning and significance are irrefutable. And texts are where authors establish equivalences among problems, which Callon et al. (1986) identifies as a major strategy of enrolling others. An important part of the standard journal article or grant application, for example, is to say, in essence, If you are interested in X (major issue) you must be interested in Y, which is the topic of the work reported/proposed here. References Latour, B. and Woolgar, S. (1991). Laboratory life: the construction of scientific facts, intro by Salk, J., Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press Callon, Michel, John Law, and Arie Rip, eds. Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology: Sociology of Science in the Real World. London: Macmillan Press, 1986. Actor network theory has become very helpful in understanding connections between places and space. Its insistency on non human factor in network production Supply chain and bottleneck bureaucracy of the supply of food products from Africa into the UK makes it more difficult for the availability of this food. This furthermore widens the distance/gap between consumers and suppliers/retailers. The length of this chain affects. The quality assurance schemes, production and manufacturing to retailers protocols and the application of quality management system and standard such as HACCP and ISO series are various ways of cutting supplies. Bottlenecks of food quality and safety standards in food processing and distribution. The HACCP systems are used in specific export sectors in Africa, an example is the EU quality standard for fish in Uganda is based on EU directive 91/493/EEC and on Codex Alimentarius (Trienekens et al 2008:116) covering areas of microbiology level, pesticides residues, heavy metals, effluents, Good manufacturing practices (processing stage) and HACCP (processing stage) (Ssemwanga, 2003 as cited in Trienekens et al 2008:116). Kenya adheres to UK food and safety Act of 1990, more so testing laboratories are accredited to ISO 17025; 2000 by United Kingdom Accreditation services (UKAS) (Kari 2003), the high deportation rate of this products on western markets shows the fragility of the systems. As pesticides residues are discovered in the product. Other systems used for processors and packers of fish for exports are GMP, ISO 90002. The proliferation of standards by western markets creates a barrier for the application of standards by developing countries producers. The lack of enabling environment in which infrastructure facilities are absent in African countries is also a major setback. African countries are still discovering quality and safety of food as important condition for international food trade (Trieneken et al 2008:117). Building of facilities, government structures to improve and ensure quality and safety of products are still key agenda of attention. The importance of transportation, preservation (cooled system of transport) and storage are very vital to international trade. African countries are still at the phase of establishing the right conditions to enforce food quality and safety of the other products. According to Trieneken et al- many developing countries do not have skilled labour and laboratory facilities, this however limits good- quality management, making difficult. Small and medium size business, from developing countries find difficult or almost impossible to comply with standard required in western markets (Dinham, 2003, Unnevehr, 2002). Due to barriers created by SPS and TBT in exporting foods, from developing countries do not have the adequate information and most likely unaware of specific demand of western standards for trade. The heterogeneous standard in developed economies also poses a problem, as continues differ to country and market also differ. The cost of certification is too much for develop countries to bear. Most African food products are unable to adapt to the rigorous requirements of modern supply chain, either through scale enterprise or lack of knowledge or financial constraints, become non-competitive. The myriad of innovations and development has made the process of food supply chain increase in productivity. The combine technology of accurate weighing, refrigeration controlled atmospheric bacterial growth inhibition, pasteurisation, micro-element pollutant detection, bar-coding, electronic recognition of packaging, the use of stabilizers etc, has also contributed to the difficulty in having African food cross over, as most business may not be financially equipped enough for the volume of the trading. Christopher (1999) notes that the supply chain management evolves around the partnership developed in the chain and is supported by information technology applications that co-ordinate information dissemination and sharing amongst the chain members. This research has revealed that most home cooked food are prepared under high hygienic conditions, as cooking is monitored by consumer themselves problems with calories consumptions that affect the health of consumer is also under check, compared to the perceptions about eating fast food at convenience KFC and MacDonalds. This is one reason for the preference of African food among black consumer. One of the major problems of availability of African foods in UK is the problem of access into the country. Developing countries especially in Africa find it difficult to meet the food safety standards imposed by the UK/developing countries. Food safety standards which were originally set up to keep food for quality and safe consumption, by government of different countries are being used as trade impeding protectionist tools.(Jongwanich 2009:1). Food safety standards are usually to the disadvantage of developing countries, due to their limits capacity to access and use technology and information. International trade negotiations have experience setbacks for developing countries in recent years due to a demand for more stringent SPS in developed countries, which is as a result of increase in health consciousness and rising incomes. Before now, tariffs and quantitative restrictions are the trade barriers and impediments that affect export from developing countries to developed countri es, but in recent times, food safety standards have become tool for protectionist to block trade(Jongwanich 2009: