American Tendency of Rising Taxes

Recently, American citizens have witnessed a tendency of rising taxes (Blodget 1). This issue of rising taxes seems to have gained momentum, especially after the financial recession of 2008. Today, many Americans are concerned about the increasing tax levels. The issue of huge taxes has led to declining disposable income, forcing many consumers to struggle in their daily lives.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on American Tendency of Rising Taxes specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More If one was to interview many Americans on the issue of taxes, there are high chances that many of them will respond by highlighting their deteriorating living standards resulting from high taxes. This paper will discuss the issue of high taxes and its effect on American people. The direct impact of high taxes on households would be low purchasing power, which leads to a reduction in consumption levels, as well as accumulation of debts as hous ehold seek alternative source of funds to support their livelihood. On the other hand, high taxes affect businesses, as they eat into the firms’ profits, significantly reducing net earnings that could be used in expansion of business or new investments. As a result, the whole economy tends to suffer, as demand decreases significantly. Therefore, there is need for government agencies responsible for tax regulation to initiate tax reforms and policies that would be beneficial to all the stakeholders in the economy. Moreover, given that the taxpayers are directly affected by the tax system in place, it is important that the system should be equitable, accommodative, and fair to all stakeholders. High taxes have a negative effect on the growth of the economy. For example, high taxes lead to low net incomes despite the efforts made by people to earn such income, thus eroding motivation from people who then become less productive (Cohn 1). In addition, high taxes tend to increase o perating costs for businesses, and since the businesses have to make profit, they may decide to increase the price of finished products or lay off some employees in order to cut costs. The effect of expensive finished products is felt by consumers. Indeed, the consumers are affected twice by increased taxes, first through reduced income and then through increased commodity prices. The general effect of this tax increment is reduction in purchases, which then leads to reduction in supply as firms reduce production to match demand. Finally, the overall economic activity in the country declines, thus affecting economic growth negatively. Although the above points call for reduction of taxes for the benefit of consumers and investors, some scholars believe that low taxes are not beneficial to the economy. They state that, taxes are used by government to finance public goods, which are essential for the welfare of citizens (Cohn 1). Therefore, low taxes will make provision of welfare goo ds by the government difficult, thus deteriorating the general economic conditions.Advertising Looking for essay on law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, the government will be forced to cut budget for public goods such as healthcare, education, transport, security among others, which are essential for all citizens, the result of which will be a decrease in social welfare of the society (Cohn 1). Therefore, the issue of enacting reforms to reduce taxes to manageable levels for majority of Americans is considered not to be the best option by this school of thought. There are numerous avenues through which this issue of high taxes can be tackled and bring relief to majority of Americans. As the situation stands now, many businesses are either closing down due to high taxes or moving to other countries where taxes are affordable. The result is the increasing unemployment as job opportunities decline. Moreover, as busines ses relocate, government financing declines, leading to collapse of various programs and reduction of wealth creation in the country. The government should therefore initiate a policy that encourages investment and wealth creation. Such a policy would ensure that the taxes applicable to various business classes are equitable and fair so that the businesses are able to operate profitable. When this happens, numerous companies willing to leave will be enticed to stay and participate in wealth creation. The establishment of more indigenous industries will provide employment for many Americans, enabling the many consumers to possess more income after paying taxes. What the government will do is that, instead of concentrating high taxes on a particular segment of population, it should spread the tax bracket across a wide group, making it possible to reduce taxes as more people become eligible to pay taxes. The government should also reform its spending pattern for effective implementatio n of tax system by prioritizing the most important programs. Indeed, this will largely reduce the deficit and enable the economy to recover. Another area that the government needs to address is the American property industry. According to Tuttle (1), property taxes have skyrocketed recently, forcing investors to shy away from the property industry, or even relocating to other industries or countries. Moreover, as property taxes increase, property prices including rent increase, thus affecting consumers and small businesses. Indeed, small businesses are the main drivers of the economy, therefore, when they are faced with expensive properties, they tend to relocate, leading to unemployment and reduced trading activities. When this happens, the impact is huge and evident in key aspects such as reduction of employment opportunities, increase in number of unemployment benefits, and little contribution to national tax kitty. Therefore, it is prudent for effective and efficient property ta x reforms to be enacted.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on American Tendency of Rising Taxes specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The issue of raising tax for the rich and middle class population is very sensitive to the economy. Generally, a rise in taxes creates an immense burden to larger American society. The society cannot progress at an accelerated speed if high taxes persist, as this tends to push investors and rich people to other regions. As investors move away from the economy, employment opportunities reduce, while at same time, taxes reduce leading to low production of social welfare programs that cannot adequately cater for the whole population. Therefore, given the immense negative effects that high tax are imposing on the nation, there is need for establishment and implementation of a comprehensive tax reform framework that is more business friendly. Increased business activity contributes to growth of the economy, as more people are able to earn incomes, thus entering into tax bracket. In this case, distribution of tax pay will be more even and widespread, thus allowing government to reduce tax rates while at the same time collecting enough to finance social programs. Therefore, instead of just fixing eyes on the tax movement, it would be advisable if necessary steps were undertaken to stimulate economic growth, reduce government spending, and exploit more energy resources available in the country, which will subsequently contribute to economic growth, hence pushing taxes down. Works Cited Blodget, Henry. â€Å"The truth about taxes: Here’s how high today’s rates really are†. Business Insider, 12 July 2011. Web. Cohn, Jonathan. â€Å"Can we tolerate higher taxes? Heed the Swedish chef.† The New Republican News, 23 March 2011. Web. Tuttle, Brad. â€Å"7 Odd solutions for 7 common economic problems†. Times Financial Insight, 08 July 2011. Web.Adve rtising Looking for essay on law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This essay on American Tendency of Rising Taxes was written and submitted by user Beckett C. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Prince Obike Essays - Movements For Civil Rights, Free Essays

Prince Obike Essays - Movements For Civil Rights, Free Essays Prince Obike AFRO 133 Dr. Joshua Myers 18 October 2018 There is a River "Vincent Harding's, "There is a River" illustrates the black experience in America while providing a historical summary of how African Americans have struggled for justice in the United States. "There is a River" describes black radicalism by using the river as a metaphor for the black struggle to convey the tradition of black protest and other forms of reaction to white oppression.In Harding's view, the river symbolizes expectation for a greater future for African Americans. African Americans are the river, Harding states that African Americans struggles are "long continuous movement, flowing...sometimes powerful,tumultuous, and rolling with life; and at other times meandering and turgid; covered with ice and snow of seemingly endless winters, all too often streaked and running with blood".Vincent Harding's "There is a River" uses the metaphor of a river to not only describe the complicated experiences of African Americans, but also uses the metaphor to connect the past an d the present predicaments of blacks in America in terms of internal battles within the black community, white hegemonic attacks against black communities and businesses, and ultimately the metaphor can be used as a rallying cry for the future expansion of black rights and dignity. Harding uses the river metaphor to equate water to many existing methods of illustrating the black experience. For example, the river can represent a continuous story of the struggle for civil rights. Water and the river are used as metaphor for freedom. When Harding describes African Americans struggles a a "long continuous movement" such as a river I believe that is also a reference to time. When the North America was first colonized by Europeans, the was a lot of land that needed work. Labour was needed to work the land so that the colonies could begin to profit from the land . Women and men both participated in the labor. It even got to point to where other europeans who were indentured servants were sent over to help with the land. Eventually around the 17th century the europeans decided to send over a boat of slaves to help with the land. The used these slaves to help with crops such as tobacco, which was the America's most profitable crop.By the time the American Revoluti on started and ended the south was flourishing because of how well the tobacco industry was going.This was the spark of a "long continuous movement" because soon after Eli whitney invented the cotton gin. This invention made it possible for textile mills to use the type of cotton most easily grown in the South.With the cotton gin so popular, slaves were needed in large numbers again. At this time white people began to dehumanize African Americans.They argued that black people were similar to children. They believe they were doing African Americans a favor because they were incapable of caring for themselves Not only were they caring for African Americans but that also kept them fed, clothed, and occupied. As time progressed African Americans began to become "radical" and know that they were above what they were being told. The Underground Railroad was organized to help slaves escape north to freedom. After years of "stealing" the freedom they were born with , slaves were "freed" in the year 1863, but their "long continuous movement" along that river was nowhere near finished. The new struggle African Americans have to fight with was segregation. This also ushered in the The Civil Rights Movement, that lasted for years, Even though many of the most important achievements in The Civil Rights Movement happened in the 1950s for African Americans, segregation, and racial acts took place every day. African Americans had been fighting against racial segregation since they were brought to the continent.Although he Civil Rights Movement tried to help with the social, economic, physical and political disadvantages they faced it did not solve the hatred rooted in some individuals hearts. The divide between whites and blacks was so severe that many citizens risked their lives to pursue and gain equal rights for the black population. Even the law was set up against African Americans. A "long continuous movement". We are still flowing down

Ethics in Public Administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Ethics in Public Administration - Essay Example It is commonly described as the study of moral conduct. The term 'moral' as here used covers all conduct which is subject to the judgement of right and wrong. The distinction implied is not between moral and immoral, right and wrong, but between moral and unmoral, i.e., between conduct which has a moral aspect and that which has none. Ethics in public administration suffers from the absence of a theoretical framework to supply focus, definition, background, and a common frame of reference for the research and practice of ethical administration. There seems to be little disagreement that such a framework is lacking. In 1980, Dwight Waldo described the state of moral and ethical behaviour in public administration as "chaotic" (Waldo, 1980: 100). In 1983, James Bowman stated that "in both practice and theory, the ethical implications of administrative and political conduct remain largely unexplored" (Bowman, 1983a:71). Most recently, John Rohr, in presenting a "state of the discipline" report at a major conference, states that "throughout this report I have stressed the diversity in the ethics field; a diversity that comes close to chaos" (Rohr, 1986a:53). Utilitarianism Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is the idea that moral worth of an action is determined solely by its contribution to overall utility: that is, its contribution to happiness or pleasure as summed among all people. It is thus a form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome. Utility, the good to ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS 4 be maximized, has been defined by various thinkers as happiness or pleasure (versus suffering or pain), although preference utilitarians define it as the satisfaction of preferences. It may be described as a life stance, with happiness or pleasure being of ultimate importance. Utilitarianism is described by the phrase "the greatest good for the greatest number of people". Therefore, it is also known as "the greatest happiness principle." Preference Utilitarianism Preference utilitarianism is one of the most popular forms of utlilitarianism in contemporary philosophy. Like other utilitarian theorists, preference utilitarians define a morally right action as that which produces the most favourable consequences for the people involved. However, preference utilatairans interpret the best consequences in terms of ;preference satisfaction'. This means that 'good' is

Business and Management Decision Making BZ Essay

Business and Management Decision Making BZ - Essay Example The hospitality services of the Glasgow University offers a wide range of catering service. The food products and other catering services are offered to a wide range of consumers starting from students, professors and other staffs. This as a result makes it a lucrative business for the University. Moreover, academic departments are also forbidden to outsource food from any other outlets. This as a result, has made them captive customers for the Glasgow University hospitality services. However, the institution also faces significant amount of competition from outlets outside the campus. These outlets include restaurants, pubs and other eateries which are in close proximities from the university campus. This as a result makes it easier for the students and staff to have an alternative option for eating outside the campus. This can be described from a theoretical stand point by highlighting the Porter’s five forces of competition. The Porter (2008) mentioned that the competitive force not only arise from the rivalry among existing firms, but also from four other direction. The Porter five force analyses will help to assess the level of competition faced by the Glasgow University hospitality service. This data will be then utilized to analyse the required changes that are required to make the service offering at par to the desired level. Power of Buyers: The power of buyers can be described in terms of their switching cost, which is indirectly proportional. If the switching cost of the buyers is low, then their bargaining power increases (Dalrymple, 2008). The availability of several restaurants and pubs in the close proximity of the university campus makes it easier for the customers to choose from several available options. However, outsourcings from outside eateries are not allowed in the campus. This as a result, reduces the buyers’ power slightly. Thus, the overall

Economic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Economic - Essay Example For the purpose of maintaining and achieving such stability, however, it uses various tools and strategies which are discussed in the article as well as explained elaborately in the subsequent sections of this paper. Introduction: This article titled â€Å"RBA raises inflation forecast as traders raise rate expectations† written by Michael Boutros, appeared in The Bull, on May 09, 2011 (thebull, 2011). The author is a technical / fundamental currency analyst specializing in the FX markets, and works for DailyFX (fxstreet, 2011). The article discusses the current Australian interest rates stating the RBA's (Reserve Bank of Australia) recent declaration regarding rise in the inflation forecast above the 2-3 per cent target through the year 2013. The Reserve Bank of Australia held rates at 4.75% for a fifth straight meeting. It states that considering the current rates, which are above the expected target, the central bank has very little opportunity to tolerate any further advan ces in its prices. The author predicts that in response to such rising inflation, the RBA might lift its cash rate in the coming months, as the investments in mining and energy sectors rise, which are likely to further accelerate the pace of inflation. Economic concepts and theories to be applied: The article deals with the variation in interest rates and the rising inflation, and discusses the ways and means to control the same. In this regard, the author has suggested tightening the monetary policy, which can be discussed in accordance with the contractionary monetary policy preceded by a brief overview of the monetary policy i.e. both the concept as well as the monetary policy of Australia. The other concepts discussed in this article include Cash Rate, and inflation targeting. Key Definitions: Inflation targeting: According to Bernanke et al., (1999: 4) inflation targeting is a framework for monetary policy characterized by the public announcement of official quantitative target s (or target ranges) for the inflation rate over one or more time horizons, and by explicit acknowledgement that low, stable inflation is monetary policy's primary long-run goal" (in Hufner, 2004: 7) Analysis: Economists often forecast a rise in inflation rates. These forecasts or predictions regarding inflation are based on various factors. One such approach is the standard economic theory which posits that a rise in inflation occurs on account of a downturn in the economy and when the production surpasses the capacity constraints. According to this approach, the measures of an economic downturn, such as capacity utilization or unemployment rates, offer valuable information regarding the manner in which inflation would turn, i.e. rise or fall. However, this is not the only approach to forecasting inflation. The other approach relies on certain key indicators of inflation. These key indicators take into consideration factors such as commodity prices, gold prices, and other composite indicators which are then used to forecast the inflation rates. According to the article, the RBA forecasts inflation to reach 3 per cent by December this year, while the forecast for the year 2013 is estimated to cross 3.25 per cent mark. The following figure indicates the inflation rate

Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool

Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool Abstract The aim of this research is to observe and explain consumers preference for African food in Liverpool. By identifying the attitudes towards African food, evaluating the different factors that affect the availability and accessibility of these foods within the city, the effect of globalisation processes on food production to consumption. Three different theories have been used in this research, the Theory of Reason Action, Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Actor Network Theory and the theory of consumption. The global production network which seeks to identify the geographical spatiality involved in the network process of crossing African foods to UK. The actor-network theory is used to explain the different actors/actants in the global production network. The theories of reasoned action and theory of planned behaviour used in this research intends to explain consumer attitude, preference and behaviour towards African foods. It is however observed that African consumers tend to prefer African traditional meals but this is affected by cost, time and distance. A combination of qualitative and quantitative research method is used to better interpret the outcomes of the result. A total of 150 respondents where interviewed from various part of the city, including students, young adults family etc. Cutting across different age groups. Owners of African food stores and restaurants were interviewed using both structured and semi-structured interview. Individuals were selected randomly, to verify interest in African foods. Chapter 1 Introduction The importance of food as a necessity of life goes beyond physical nourishment. Anthropologist and sociologist emphasize that food practices are prime means through which social relationships are formed. (Johnston et al 2006:272). A familiar saying goes â€Å"we are what we eat†; food links us to the rituals and recipes of previous generations, creating a network between families, wider communities, and the global trading network of producers, distributors and consumers. More so, we are transported into the world of others as we experience the tastes of unknown tradition and cultures. Food choices make profound impact on the environment, health and welfare of others, challenging the ideas of tradition and identity. Travel and immigration have also resulted in the changing and shifting of traditions over the years. National identities have been created also by food traditions in distant lands among people of similar culture and background. Food is an indicator of cultural tradi tions, values, and how food traditions develop and evolve over space and time. Much talk of globalisation of foods have helped in shaping traditions, cultural diversity, social and political economy of places, (Bernstein et al 1990: 9, Tinker 1997: 137, 143) however, not all kinds of food are very welcomed in some places, though may not be stated categorically, it can be observed within cities and communities most probably as result of economic policies, cultural differences, international trading policies. Traditional food is a vital aspect of the African cultural heritage. The production processing sale and distribution of food products enhances cultural and ethnic coherence in communities. Consumers demand for safe and tasteful traditional food products (Cayot, 2007). However, there is also a demand for varieties of ethnic foods in multi-ethnic cities and community. The definition of food encompasses matters of moral and cultural significance, differentiating food products, providers and consumers (Cook et al 1996). Food has always had a long history of constructed associations which involves associations of places and people, and has been used as emblem of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Johnston et al claim that there is no single geographical literature on food with its own coherent themes and problematic, as the study of food is found in economic, political, cultural, social and biological aspects of geography. Therefore food matter does not sit within the confinement of conceptual and spatial boundaries (Johnston 2006: 272). Key issues surrounding topic The speed and reach of globalisation, travel and trade, bring all kinds of diverse foods together. This has however affected the definitions of particular national food culture (Murray). The influence of travel and migration can be seen on major streets and cities in United Kingdom with a rich mixture of nationalities, Indian curry houses, Jewish Bagel shops, Chinese buffets restaurant, Italian restaurant, Mexican among others. However, the presence of African food restaurants seems not a loud as the others considering the long standing history of Blacks in the city. The absence of physical representation of the African food culture around the city especially in everyday cultural display such as in food, as compared to the Asian presence of Chinese, Indian, Thai, Mexican cuisines and other ethnic group in Liverpool raises questions of demand and supply. The most important representation so far is the International Slavery museum at the docks and black slave sculptures that are displayed around historical places in the city, which are only representations of past history and geography and not a total representation of the African culture in recent times. Ethnic minority consumers quest for cultural identity is perceived in the food culture of the group in concern. Commercial globalisation has renewed interest in the relationship between culture and traditional norms and values (James 1890). This pursuit for identity among most migrants to the western world is pronounced in their choice of food (Bauman2000). This research seeks to observe trends in African consumer behaviour and attitude toward African food in United Kingdom, using Liverpool as a case study. In trying to observe and evaluate these trends, certain issues have provided a background for this study, one of which is the re-materializing of postcolonial geographies as it affects Africans in a foreign country. African migrants attitude and food choice behaviour have been affected by certain factors, government and institutional policies of cutting across various levels of trading activities. In determining a consumers preference towards food related behaviours, convenience, as a food attribute, has been described as being as important as taste, health and price (Candel, 2001). However, the availability and accessibility of food influence consumers preference as different values are considered in understanding why consumers make certain food choice. Food choice is a complex phenomenon with many interacting events determining which foods are eaten by the individual at a particular time and place. (Shepherd 1989.) The failure of African foods to cross over into United Kingdom mainstream market has pointed to issues of production, preservation and transportation of African foods into the United Kingdom. International trade policies and barriers by OECD countries, farm subsidies have all been major setbacks to the availability of African food stuff in the United Kingdom. Chapter 1 literature review: theories of consumer perception, Chapter 2 how do Africans perceive African foods and other foods, what do Africans think about the origin of their food and the patriotic nature of Africans towards their food, the first experience of food, generational experience of food. Chapter 3 methodology: theories of research methods. Chapter 4 Chapter 5 result and discussions: background history of black Liverpool, map and population census 2001 of Africans in Liverpool, identifying African business and Questionnaires and interview analysis, Chapter 6 trade relations between African countries and UK CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW This literature review looks at the studies that have been done in areas of food preference as it concerns culture, food identity, food preference and quality. The second section will review theories employed in the research and the importance of global production networks. Catherine Dolan and John Humphrey (2000) used Global commodity chain as networks where the decision-maker influences the output of chains and composition governance in their paper ‘governance and trade in fresh vegetables. Their study does not recognise the identity of commodity and consumer as a factor in buyer driven commodity, evaluating the geography of space. This research explores the ethnic identity of consumer as a major actor in global commodity chain networks. The buyers themselves being of African nationality purchase food stuff from the local food store or African food restaurants which receive their supplies from importers of African foods in major cities like London and Manchester. The connection therefore is from the African farmers who grow the foods, to major exporter or importer as the case maybe, to the shelves food store and tables of the restaurant then consumed by Africans who live several miles away from their home country. The cultural identity of the co nsumers becomes a vital connection to the market, because consumers also make demand on the desired food choice. Consumers access to these foods becomes important to the continuity of this trade. Ben Fine (1993) defines commodity chains as â€Å"the commodity-specific chain connecting production, distribution, marketing and consumption and material culture surrounding these elements†, in the study of systems of provision (fine 1993:600). This approach acknowledges the importance of commodities as a possibility of more balanced treatment of the relationship between production and consumption (Crewe 2000). Studies have explored how networks of embedded firms are offering the potential for the more equitable relations between retailer and suppliers, through the sharing of knowledge as market intelligence and labour. (Crewe 1996, Scott 1996, Crewe and Beaverstock 1998). Other study have considered the creative dimension of domestic consumption, and the ways in which consumer good s are actively appropriated in the everyday spaces of the home, however, Domosh examines the reclamation of the home and the domestic space as key consumption site. But it does not take into account the origin of the commodities and how it relates to space for consumption (Domosh 1998). Cook and Crang, explore ways in which geographical knowledge about products invoke a â€Å"double commodity fetishism†. This is the idea in which consumer knowledge are limited by spatially distanciated systems of provision. (Laying emphasis on geographical knowledge about widely sources of food commodities and process through which food is supplied). This work highlights cultural means of places and spaces. Cook and Crang (1996), further explores the global extensive networks and flows of food, people and culinary knowledge embedded in cosmopolitan London. Suggesting that â€Å"cultural mosaic† (Friedman, 1994), conceptualise cultural geographies as bounded cultural regions where constructed associations between food, places and peoples, associations epitomising the conceptions of national, regional and local cuisines. Also describes food as emblems and markers of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Cook et al (1998), in seeking the articulation of the geographies of culture looks at how figure displacement can be used to suggest process of food consumption are cast as local, the connections of food consumption to networks, which extend beyond delimiting boundaries of particular places. Again, in a closely related study, Cook reflects on the biography and geographies of food. A definition of food as having their own biographies, studies the connection of consumer knowledge about the geographical origins of the food they consume and what roles it plays in food choice and consumption (Cook et al 1998). He concludes in a suggestion that knowledge can potentially be a significant factor in food choice and preference. Much research has been done on Caribbean foods within and outside United Kingdom, probably due to the influx of Caribbean foods into United Kingdom market in the mid 1990s, when it became the ethnic cuisine to go mainstream after the Chinese, Indian and Tex Mex (Cook et al 2003). The complex history of the Caribbeans produced a regional cuisine which had overlapped with the Indian and Chinese foods that were on top of international cuisines in the United Kingdom. The region had also become tourist centres to Europeans and a large interest of the Caribbean lifestyle and delicacies reflected on the shelves of UK supermarkets, in addition to the projected images by celebrity chefs, and companies who increased the exports to satisfy the demand of this market in the mid nineties (Cook et al 2003). This also reflected in Caribbean centres established in major cities and streets in the UK. Cook and Harrison examine debate over the failure of Caribbean food to cross over into the UK mainstream. The paper review mosaic and theories of culture as fundamental difference between a white â€Å"mainstream† and black â€Å"ethnic other† as part problems of this failure. (Cook and Harrison 2003). Understandings of postcolonial geographies of material culture and its contributions to the undermining of, and resistance to forms of colonial dominations that persist in contemporary global capitalist relationships as can be found in food trade relations between the ‘third world and the ‘west. The study uses the example of the corporate history of Grace, Kennedy and Co, a company that preferred to cater for the needs of UK ethnic minority and the third world consumers, instead of prioritising cross over in to UK mainstream market. Friedberg research of modern historical geography of food in Burkina Faso shows how agricultural policies, dietary preferences health concerns, helped to transform regional diet, landscape and economy, resulting to temporal and spatial patterns of daily life in Burkina Faso. The study observes the incorporation of Burkina Faso into the globalised market economy as a result of luxury food (French beans), not leaving out the expectation of food quality safety standards (Friedberg 2003). The study also observes the changing geographies of the meaning of food, suggesting how historical study of food consumption takes place outside formal market economy. Gaps in current research Studies on firms by management oriented researchers have been focused more on companies in developed economies, central and Eastern Europe, small and local food production firms in Africa and their business counterparts even in developed economies have received less attention in the study of economic development. Past researches remained outside social science mainstream therefore have not been influenced by general discourses especially in the field of economic geography. Feminist researchers who have done research in the developing world have only concentrated on gender-related issues in the developing nations rather than with broader questions of small, local and industrial organisations and economic development (Henderson et al 2002:437). The major issues of trade liberalization have affected the cross over of African food and with the increase of safety standard procedures by the UK govt. The challenges of small business and the cost of food as also other major issues that will be discussed. In examining the geographical knowledge about food, actors associated with food, which involves location and situatedness of food, the networks and flows of food and people are major debates around the accessibility of these foods. According to Cook et al the long-running history of interconnections between people and places; and the increasing consciousness of the compression of the economic, political, cultural world, and the production of the world as a single place are two major contentions of globalisation debates (Cook et al 1996). London is said to be promoted as a space of ‘global post-modern (Hall, 1991: 32) by the staging and reconstruction of cultural difference in ‘globalisation diversity (Pieterse, 1995:45 as cited Cook 1996), arguably, Liverpool being proclaimed as the ‘world in one city though with characteristic history of local culture is yet to produce a matching representation of modern diversity of the African culture with the exception of the In ternational Slavery museum. Post colonial issues around African cultural heritage in Liverpool will enhance globalisation diversity as represented in food, arts and cultural of the African food biography and origin. Global Production networks Global production networks emphasize the need to refocus attention on the social circumstances under which commodities are produced and consumed† (Dickens et al 2002 pg 444). It takes into account, the process of production-(can be from the farm stage, harvest, labour technology, processing in Africa, transportation, UK standardization, repackaging, supply and distribution,) which do not always follow a chain link but a complex network process, over time and space and distance to consumption. The GPN framework allows for a greater complexity and geographical variation in producer-consumer relation, this in turn enhances the ability to reveal how certain key knowledge ‘circulate between producers, consumers and intermediaries. It also reveals complex social geographies as agents located in different places can be seen to combine to influence the production process (Henderson et al 2002:445). In all, this research seeks to answer the following questions: †¢ Research Questions? To what extent does the demand of African food affect its availability? What impact does African food trade make on the supply of these foods? How have African food stores and restaurants faired with migration of Africans in Liverpool? Preference is described by Babicz-Zielinska as â€Å"a general predisposition for a particular food, independent of the eating situation, and expressed by degree of liking or disliking of the food, desired food frequency or fraction of subjects selecting the food as a response to its name†(Babicz-Zielinska 1999:139). The choice of food depends on factors that influence human behaviour, which in turn affects the rejection of some food and acceptance of others. A classification based on current food-choice models is used to explain certain attributes of food choice is made by Babicz-Zielinska (Babicz-Zielinska 1999:138) 1. Production-related factors- which could be physical and chemical properties of food, sensory attributes, functional features(labelling, availability) nutritional value; or 2. Consumer-related factors- personal features, (age, gender, psychological factors, experience, personality), physiological factors (health) or 3. Environment-related factors- economic factors (price and income), cultural factors (beliefs, social factors- social status and fashion. Consumer-related factors and environment-related factors will be area of concern in this research. Factors of food choice survey was conducted in European Community EC countries, and it showed that quality/freshness, taste, selecting a healthy diet, price, family preferences and habits belong to the most important choice factors, (Lennernas et al 1997) Behavioural research methodologies are usually used to ascertain the underlying factors that determine food-related behaviour, reason being that food choice and consumption are natural and integrated part of human behaviour (Mahon et al 2006:474). The theory of reasoned action The theory of reasoned action has received attention within the field of consumer behaviour. (Sheppard et al 1988). The theory of reasoned action studies attitude and behaviour (Ajzen Fishbein 1980). It observes behavioural intention, attitude and subjective norm. According to Fishbein and Ajzen, a persons behaviour is guided by the persons attitude towards the behaviour and the subjective norm. For example, Africans tend to eat hot, spicy and tasty food, so when they find themselves away from ‘home, they look for their regular food, or something very close to the kind of food they have been used to, the alternative in this case could mean the Caribbean cuisine which also has its origin from African foods, or the Spanish or Mexican spicy foods as found in UK. However the cost also plays a determining role in making food choice, this shall be explained in detail in later chapter. Miller 2005 defines attitude, subjective norm, and behavioural intentions as the 3 components of the theory of reasoned action. Attitude: The sum of beliefs about a particular behaviour weighted by evaluation of these beliefs. Subjective norms. This looks at the influence of people in ones social environment on his/her behavioural intentions. Behavioural intention. This is a function of both attitudes towards behaviour and subjective norms towards that behaviour which has been found to predict actual behaviour. The theory of planned behaviour is adopted to explain consumer behaviour towards African food. The other alternative in this research is the British food, considering different factors that affect the choice of food. Human behaviour is explained and predicted by the theory of planned behaviour in understanding beliefs and attitudes. Ajzen et al 1986, explains that TPB is an extension of the TRA. The theory of planned behaviour was developed as a third predictor of behaviour, perceived behavioural control, (Mahon et al 2006:475). Perceived behavioural control reflects beliefs regarding the access to resources and opportunities needed to perform a behaviour (Chiou, 1998 as cited in Mahon 2006 pg 475). The availability of resources needed to engage in the behaviour such as money, time and other resources, the focal person self confidence in their ability to conduct the behaviour are two major reflections of the theory of planned behaviour. The theory of consumer preference. Consumers have set of preferences which are dependent upon individual tastes, education, culture and other factors, apart from the economic factor. These factors are measured for particular goods in terms of the real opportunity cost to the consumer who purchases and consumes the goods. Consumer level of satisfaction of a particular kind of food is determined by what the consumer defines as â€Å"satisfaction†. However, consumers are constrained in their choices of foods by income, accessibility of goods and also the price that the consumer is willing to pay for his food. Consumer preferences are defined as the subjective taste as measured by utility-(where utility is the satisfaction that a consumer derives from the consumption of a good) of various bundles of goods. Preferences help consumer to prioritize bundles of goods according to the levels of utility that they give the consumer. However, these preferences are not dependent on income and prices only. The ability for a consumer to purchase certain kind of food does not always determine a consumers like or dislike over another food. For example, an African consumer in Liverpool can have a preference for African foods over British foods but only has the financial means to buy British meals more often. There are certain assumptions of consumers preference theory, which will be further looked into, the assumption of decisiveness, consistency, non-satiation, convexity. Actor network theory. ANT, a social theory pioneered by Michel Callon (1986), Bruno Latour (1987) and John Law (1987), conceptualize social interactions in terms of networks. This includes the material environment and human causes. The concept of ANT acknowledges the importance of both material and human factors in networks. The theory conveys the idea that the actor does not act ‘on his own but only under the influence of complex network of material and human influences. For example, the process involved in making African foods available is not just caused human factors, but also by production, technology, society, extended politics of trade and culture, all affecting the accessibility and availability of the foods. According to Callon (1986) materials causes as well as human actors may be determinants of the social interactions and outcomes (Callon 1986). According to Henderson 2002, ANT emphasize the relationality of object and agency in heterogeneous networks, in other words, entities in network s are shaped by and can only be understood through their relations and connectivity to other entities(Law, 1999:4 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). Again, space and distance are observed as ‘spatial fields and relational scopes of influence, power and connectivity (Harvey, 1969; Murdoch 1998 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). According to Nancy Vanhouse, ANT has to approaches, ‘follow the actor, through interviews and ethnographic research and through examining inscriptions. Inscriptions including texts, but also images of many sorts, databases, and the like are central to knowledge work. Some (e.g., Latour and Woolgar, 1991; Callon, Law, and Rip, 1986) say that texts (including journal articles, conference papers and presentations, grant proposals, and patents) are among the major, if not the major, products of scientific work. Inscriptions make action at a distance possible by stabilizing work in such a way that it can travel across space and time and be combined with other work. Texts are also central to the process of gaining credibility. They carry work to other people and institutions. They attempt to present work in such a way that its meaning and significance are irrefutable. And texts are where authors establish equivalences among problems, which Callon et al. (1986) identifies as a major strategy of enrolling others. An important part of the standard journal article or grant application, for example, is to say, in essence, If you are interested in X (major issue) you must be interested in Y, which is the topic of the work reported/proposed here. References Latour, B. and Woolgar, S. (1991). Laboratory life: the construction of scientific facts, intro by Salk, J., Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press Callon, Michel, John Law, and Arie Rip, eds. Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology: Sociology of Science in the Real World. London: Macmillan Press, 1986. Actor network theory has become very helpful in understanding connections between places and space. Its insistency on non human factor in network production Supply chain and bottleneck bureaucracy of the supply of food products from Africa into the UK makes it more difficult for the availability of this food. This furthermore widens the distance/gap between consumers and suppliers/retailers. The length of this chain affects. The quality assurance schemes, production and manufacturing to retailers protocols and the application of quality management system and standard such as HACCP and ISO series are various ways of cutting supplies. Bottlenecks of food quality and safety standards in food processing and distribution. The HACCP systems are used in specific export sectors in Africa, an example is the EU quality standard for fish in Uganda is based on EU directive 91/493/EEC and on Codex Alimentarius (Trienekens et al 2008:116) covering areas of microbiology level, pesticides residues, heavy metals, effluents, Good manufacturing practices (processing stage) and HACCP (processing stage) (Ssemwanga, 2003 as cited in Trienekens et al 2008:116). Kenya adheres to UK food and safety Act of 1990, more so testing laboratories are accredited to ISO 17025; 2000 by United Kingdom Accreditation services (UKAS) (Kari 2003), the high deportation rate of this products on western markets shows the fragility of the systems. As pesticides residues are discovered in the product. Other systems used for processors and packers of fish for exports are GMP, ISO 90002. The proliferation of standards by western markets creates a barrier for the application of standards by developing countries producers. The lack of enabling environment in which infrastructure facilities are absent in African countries is also a major setback. African countries are still discovering quality and safety of food as important condition for international food trade (Trieneken et al 2008:117). Building of facilities, government structures to improve and ensure quality and safety of products are still key agenda of attention. The importance of transportation, preservation (cooled system of transport) and storage are very vital to international trade. African countries are still at the phase of establishing the right conditions to enforce food quality and safety of the other products. According to Trieneken et al- many developing countries do not have skilled labour and laboratory facilities, this however limits good- quality management, making difficult. Small and medium size business, from developing countries find difficult or almost impossible to comply with standard required in western markets (Dinham, 2003, Unnevehr, 2002). Due to barriers created by SPS and TBT in exporting foods, from developing countries do not have the adequate information and most likely unaware of specific demand of western standards for trade. The heterogeneous standard in developed economies also poses a problem, as continues differ to country and market also differ. The cost of certification is too much for develop countries to bear. Most African food products are unable to adapt to the rigorous requirements of modern supply chain, either through scale enterprise or lack of knowledge or financial constraints, become non-competitive. The myriad of innovations and development has made the process of food supply chain increase in productivity. The combine technology of accurate weighing, refrigeration controlled atmospheric bacterial growth inhibition, pasteurisation, micro-element pollutant detection, bar-coding, electronic recognition of packaging, the use of stabilizers etc, has also contributed to the difficulty in having African food cross over, as most business may not be financially equipped enough for the volume of the trading. Christopher (1999) notes that the supply chain management evolves around the partnership developed in the chain and is supported by information technology applications that co-ordinate information dissemination and sharing amongst the chain members. This research has revealed that most home cooked food are prepared under high hygienic conditions, as cooking is monitored by consumer themselves problems with calories consumptions that affect the health of consumer is also under check, compared to the perceptions about eating fast food at convenience KFC and MacDonalds. This is one reason for the preference of African food among black consumer. One of the major problems of availability of African foods in UK is the problem of access into the country. Developing countries especially in Africa find it difficult to meet the food safety standards imposed by the UK/developing countries. Food safety standards which were originally set up to keep food for quality and safe consumption, by government of different countries are being used as trade impeding protectionist tools.(Jongwanich 2009:1). Food safety standards are usually to the disadvantage of developing countries, due to their limits capacity to access and use technology and information. International trade negotiations have experience setbacks for developing countries in recent years due to a demand for more stringent SPS in developed countries, which is as a result of increase in health consciousness and rising incomes. Before now, tariffs and quantitative restrictions are the trade barriers and impediments that affect export from developing countries to developed countri es, but in recent times, food safety standards have become tool for protectionist to block trade(Jongwanich 2009: Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool Consumer Demand for African Food in Liverpool Abstract The aim of this research is to observe and explain consumers preference for African food in Liverpool. By identifying the attitudes towards African food, evaluating the different factors that affect the availability and accessibility of these foods within the city, the effect of globalisation processes on food production to consumption. Three different theories have been used in this research, the Theory of Reason Action, Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Actor Network Theory and the theory of consumption. The global production network which seeks to identify the geographical spatiality involved in the network process of crossing African foods to UK. The actor-network theory is used to explain the different actors/actants in the global production network. The theories of reasoned action and theory of planned behaviour used in this research intends to explain consumer attitude, preference and behaviour towards African foods. It is however observed that African consumers tend to prefer African traditional meals but this is affected by cost, time and distance. A combination of qualitative and quantitative research method is used to better interpret the outcomes of the result. A total of 150 respondents where interviewed from various part of the city, including students, young adults family etc. Cutting across different age groups. Owners of African food stores and restaurants were interviewed using both structured and semi-structured interview. Individuals were selected randomly, to verify interest in African foods. Chapter 1 Introduction The importance of food as a necessity of life goes beyond physical nourishment. Anthropologist and sociologist emphasize that food practices are prime means through which social relationships are formed. (Johnston et al 2006:272). A familiar saying goes â€Å"we are what we eat†; food links us to the rituals and recipes of previous generations, creating a network between families, wider communities, and the global trading network of producers, distributors and consumers. More so, we are transported into the world of others as we experience the tastes of unknown tradition and cultures. Food choices make profound impact on the environment, health and welfare of others, challenging the ideas of tradition and identity. Travel and immigration have also resulted in the changing and shifting of traditions over the years. National identities have been created also by food traditions in distant lands among people of similar culture and background. Food is an indicator of cultural tradi tions, values, and how food traditions develop and evolve over space and time. Much talk of globalisation of foods have helped in shaping traditions, cultural diversity, social and political economy of places, (Bernstein et al 1990: 9, Tinker 1997: 137, 143) however, not all kinds of food are very welcomed in some places, though may not be stated categorically, it can be observed within cities and communities most probably as result of economic policies, cultural differences, international trading policies. Traditional food is a vital aspect of the African cultural heritage. The production processing sale and distribution of food products enhances cultural and ethnic coherence in communities. Consumers demand for safe and tasteful traditional food products (Cayot, 2007). However, there is also a demand for varieties of ethnic foods in multi-ethnic cities and community. The definition of food encompasses matters of moral and cultural significance, differentiating food products, providers and consumers (Cook et al 1996). Food has always had a long history of constructed associations which involves associations of places and people, and has been used as emblem of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Johnston et al claim that there is no single geographical literature on food with its own coherent themes and problematic, as the study of food is found in economic, political, cultural, social and biological aspects of geography. Therefore food matter does not sit within the confinement of conceptual and spatial boundaries (Johnston 2006: 272). Key issues surrounding topic The speed and reach of globalisation, travel and trade, bring all kinds of diverse foods together. This has however affected the definitions of particular national food culture (Murray). The influence of travel and migration can be seen on major streets and cities in United Kingdom with a rich mixture of nationalities, Indian curry houses, Jewish Bagel shops, Chinese buffets restaurant, Italian restaurant, Mexican among others. However, the presence of African food restaurants seems not a loud as the others considering the long standing history of Blacks in the city. The absence of physical representation of the African food culture around the city especially in everyday cultural display such as in food, as compared to the Asian presence of Chinese, Indian, Thai, Mexican cuisines and other ethnic group in Liverpool raises questions of demand and supply. The most important representation so far is the International Slavery museum at the docks and black slave sculptures that are displayed around historical places in the city, which are only representations of past history and geography and not a total representation of the African culture in recent times. Ethnic minority consumers quest for cultural identity is perceived in the food culture of the group in concern. Commercial globalisation has renewed interest in the relationship between culture and traditional norms and values (James 1890). This pursuit for identity among most migrants to the western world is pronounced in their choice of food (Bauman2000). This research seeks to observe trends in African consumer behaviour and attitude toward African food in United Kingdom, using Liverpool as a case study. In trying to observe and evaluate these trends, certain issues have provided a background for this study, one of which is the re-materializing of postcolonial geographies as it affects Africans in a foreign country. African migrants attitude and food choice behaviour have been affected by certain factors, government and institutional policies of cutting across various levels of trading activities. In determining a consumers preference towards food related behaviours, convenience, as a food attribute, has been described as being as important as taste, health and price (Candel, 2001). However, the availability and accessibility of food influence consumers preference as different values are considered in understanding why consumers make certain food choice. Food choice is a complex phenomenon with many interacting events determining which foods are eaten by the individual at a particular time and place. (Shepherd 1989.) The failure of African foods to cross over into United Kingdom mainstream market has pointed to issues of production, preservation and transportation of African foods into the United Kingdom. International trade policies and barriers by OECD countries, farm subsidies have all been major setbacks to the availability of African food stuff in the United Kingdom. Chapter 1 literature review: theories of consumer perception, Chapter 2 how do Africans perceive African foods and other foods, what do Africans think about the origin of their food and the patriotic nature of Africans towards their food, the first experience of food, generational experience of food. Chapter 3 methodology: theories of research methods. Chapter 4 Chapter 5 result and discussions: background history of black Liverpool, map and population census 2001 of Africans in Liverpool, identifying African business and Questionnaires and interview analysis, Chapter 6 trade relations between African countries and UK CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW This literature review looks at the studies that have been done in areas of food preference as it concerns culture, food identity, food preference and quality. The second section will review theories employed in the research and the importance of global production networks. Catherine Dolan and John Humphrey (2000) used Global commodity chain as networks where the decision-maker influences the output of chains and composition governance in their paper ‘governance and trade in fresh vegetables. Their study does not recognise the identity of commodity and consumer as a factor in buyer driven commodity, evaluating the geography of space. This research explores the ethnic identity of consumer as a major actor in global commodity chain networks. The buyers themselves being of African nationality purchase food stuff from the local food store or African food restaurants which receive their supplies from importers of African foods in major cities like London and Manchester. The connection therefore is from the African farmers who grow the foods, to major exporter or importer as the case maybe, to the shelves food store and tables of the restaurant then consumed by Africans who live several miles away from their home country. The cultural identity of the co nsumers becomes a vital connection to the market, because consumers also make demand on the desired food choice. Consumers access to these foods becomes important to the continuity of this trade. Ben Fine (1993) defines commodity chains as â€Å"the commodity-specific chain connecting production, distribution, marketing and consumption and material culture surrounding these elements†, in the study of systems of provision (fine 1993:600). This approach acknowledges the importance of commodities as a possibility of more balanced treatment of the relationship between production and consumption (Crewe 2000). Studies have explored how networks of embedded firms are offering the potential for the more equitable relations between retailer and suppliers, through the sharing of knowledge as market intelligence and labour. (Crewe 1996, Scott 1996, Crewe and Beaverstock 1998). Other study have considered the creative dimension of domestic consumption, and the ways in which consumer good s are actively appropriated in the everyday spaces of the home, however, Domosh examines the reclamation of the home and the domestic space as key consumption site. But it does not take into account the origin of the commodities and how it relates to space for consumption (Domosh 1998). Cook and Crang, explore ways in which geographical knowledge about products invoke a â€Å"double commodity fetishism†. This is the idea in which consumer knowledge are limited by spatially distanciated systems of provision. (Laying emphasis on geographical knowledge about widely sources of food commodities and process through which food is supplied). This work highlights cultural means of places and spaces. Cook and Crang (1996), further explores the global extensive networks and flows of food, people and culinary knowledge embedded in cosmopolitan London. Suggesting that â€Å"cultural mosaic† (Friedman, 1994), conceptualise cultural geographies as bounded cultural regions where constructed associations between food, places and peoples, associations epitomising the conceptions of national, regional and local cuisines. Also describes food as emblems and markers of national, regional and local identities (Murcott 1995). Cook et al (1998), in seeking the articulation of the geographies of culture looks at how figure displacement can be used to suggest process of food consumption are cast as local, the connections of food consumption to networks, which extend beyond delimiting boundaries of particular places. Again, in a closely related study, Cook reflects on the biography and geographies of food. A definition of food as having their own biographies, studies the connection of consumer knowledge about the geographical origins of the food they consume and what roles it plays in food choice and consumption (Cook et al 1998). He concludes in a suggestion that knowledge can potentially be a significant factor in food choice and preference. Much research has been done on Caribbean foods within and outside United Kingdom, probably due to the influx of Caribbean foods into United Kingdom market in the mid 1990s, when it became the ethnic cuisine to go mainstream after the Chinese, Indian and Tex Mex (Cook et al 2003). The complex history of the Caribbeans produced a regional cuisine which had overlapped with the Indian and Chinese foods that were on top of international cuisines in the United Kingdom. The region had also become tourist centres to Europeans and a large interest of the Caribbean lifestyle and delicacies reflected on the shelves of UK supermarkets, in addition to the projected images by celebrity chefs, and companies who increased the exports to satisfy the demand of this market in the mid nineties (Cook et al 2003). This also reflected in Caribbean centres established in major cities and streets in the UK. Cook and Harrison examine debate over the failure of Caribbean food to cross over into the UK mainstream. The paper review mosaic and theories of culture as fundamental difference between a white â€Å"mainstream† and black â€Å"ethnic other† as part problems of this failure. (Cook and Harrison 2003). Understandings of postcolonial geographies of material culture and its contributions to the undermining of, and resistance to forms of colonial dominations that persist in contemporary global capitalist relationships as can be found in food trade relations between the ‘third world and the ‘west. The study uses the example of the corporate history of Grace, Kennedy and Co, a company that preferred to cater for the needs of UK ethnic minority and the third world consumers, instead of prioritising cross over in to UK mainstream market. Friedberg research of modern historical geography of food in Burkina Faso shows how agricultural policies, dietary preferences health concerns, helped to transform regional diet, landscape and economy, resulting to temporal and spatial patterns of daily life in Burkina Faso. The study observes the incorporation of Burkina Faso into the globalised market economy as a result of luxury food (French beans), not leaving out the expectation of food quality safety standards (Friedberg 2003). The study also observes the changing geographies of the meaning of food, suggesting how historical study of food consumption takes place outside formal market economy. Gaps in current research Studies on firms by management oriented researchers have been focused more on companies in developed economies, central and Eastern Europe, small and local food production firms in Africa and their business counterparts even in developed economies have received less attention in the study of economic development. Past researches remained outside social science mainstream therefore have not been influenced by general discourses especially in the field of economic geography. Feminist researchers who have done research in the developing world have only concentrated on gender-related issues in the developing nations rather than with broader questions of small, local and industrial organisations and economic development (Henderson et al 2002:437). The major issues of trade liberalization have affected the cross over of African food and with the increase of safety standard procedures by the UK govt. The challenges of small business and the cost of food as also other major issues that will be discussed. In examining the geographical knowledge about food, actors associated with food, which involves location and situatedness of food, the networks and flows of food and people are major debates around the accessibility of these foods. According to Cook et al the long-running history of interconnections between people and places; and the increasing consciousness of the compression of the economic, political, cultural world, and the production of the world as a single place are two major contentions of globalisation debates (Cook et al 1996). London is said to be promoted as a space of ‘global post-modern (Hall, 1991: 32) by the staging and reconstruction of cultural difference in ‘globalisation diversity (Pieterse, 1995:45 as cited Cook 1996), arguably, Liverpool being proclaimed as the ‘world in one city though with characteristic history of local culture is yet to produce a matching representation of modern diversity of the African culture with the exception of the In ternational Slavery museum. Post colonial issues around African cultural heritage in Liverpool will enhance globalisation diversity as represented in food, arts and cultural of the African food biography and origin. Global Production networks Global production networks emphasize the need to refocus attention on the social circumstances under which commodities are produced and consumed† (Dickens et al 2002 pg 444). It takes into account, the process of production-(can be from the farm stage, harvest, labour technology, processing in Africa, transportation, UK standardization, repackaging, supply and distribution,) which do not always follow a chain link but a complex network process, over time and space and distance to consumption. The GPN framework allows for a greater complexity and geographical variation in producer-consumer relation, this in turn enhances the ability to reveal how certain key knowledge ‘circulate between producers, consumers and intermediaries. It also reveals complex social geographies as agents located in different places can be seen to combine to influence the production process (Henderson et al 2002:445). In all, this research seeks to answer the following questions: †¢ Research Questions? To what extent does the demand of African food affect its availability? What impact does African food trade make on the supply of these foods? How have African food stores and restaurants faired with migration of Africans in Liverpool? Preference is described by Babicz-Zielinska as â€Å"a general predisposition for a particular food, independent of the eating situation, and expressed by degree of liking or disliking of the food, desired food frequency or fraction of subjects selecting the food as a response to its name†(Babicz-Zielinska 1999:139). The choice of food depends on factors that influence human behaviour, which in turn affects the rejection of some food and acceptance of others. A classification based on current food-choice models is used to explain certain attributes of food choice is made by Babicz-Zielinska (Babicz-Zielinska 1999:138) 1. Production-related factors- which could be physical and chemical properties of food, sensory attributes, functional features(labelling, availability) nutritional value; or 2. Consumer-related factors- personal features, (age, gender, psychological factors, experience, personality), physiological factors (health) or 3. Environment-related factors- economic factors (price and income), cultural factors (beliefs, social factors- social status and fashion. Consumer-related factors and environment-related factors will be area of concern in this research. Factors of food choice survey was conducted in European Community EC countries, and it showed that quality/freshness, taste, selecting a healthy diet, price, family preferences and habits belong to the most important choice factors, (Lennernas et al 1997) Behavioural research methodologies are usually used to ascertain the underlying factors that determine food-related behaviour, reason being that food choice and consumption are natural and integrated part of human behaviour (Mahon et al 2006:474). The theory of reasoned action The theory of reasoned action has received attention within the field of consumer behaviour. (Sheppard et al 1988). The theory of reasoned action studies attitude and behaviour (Ajzen Fishbein 1980). It observes behavioural intention, attitude and subjective norm. According to Fishbein and Ajzen, a persons behaviour is guided by the persons attitude towards the behaviour and the subjective norm. For example, Africans tend to eat hot, spicy and tasty food, so when they find themselves away from ‘home, they look for their regular food, or something very close to the kind of food they have been used to, the alternative in this case could mean the Caribbean cuisine which also has its origin from African foods, or the Spanish or Mexican spicy foods as found in UK. However the cost also plays a determining role in making food choice, this shall be explained in detail in later chapter. Miller 2005 defines attitude, subjective norm, and behavioural intentions as the 3 components of the theory of reasoned action. Attitude: The sum of beliefs about a particular behaviour weighted by evaluation of these beliefs. Subjective norms. This looks at the influence of people in ones social environment on his/her behavioural intentions. Behavioural intention. This is a function of both attitudes towards behaviour and subjective norms towards that behaviour which has been found to predict actual behaviour. The theory of planned behaviour is adopted to explain consumer behaviour towards African food. The other alternative in this research is the British food, considering different factors that affect the choice of food. Human behaviour is explained and predicted by the theory of planned behaviour in understanding beliefs and attitudes. Ajzen et al 1986, explains that TPB is an extension of the TRA. The theory of planned behaviour was developed as a third predictor of behaviour, perceived behavioural control, (Mahon et al 2006:475). Perceived behavioural control reflects beliefs regarding the access to resources and opportunities needed to perform a behaviour (Chiou, 1998 as cited in Mahon 2006 pg 475). The availability of resources needed to engage in the behaviour such as money, time and other resources, the focal person self confidence in their ability to conduct the behaviour are two major reflections of the theory of planned behaviour. The theory of consumer preference. Consumers have set of preferences which are dependent upon individual tastes, education, culture and other factors, apart from the economic factor. These factors are measured for particular goods in terms of the real opportunity cost to the consumer who purchases and consumes the goods. Consumer level of satisfaction of a particular kind of food is determined by what the consumer defines as â€Å"satisfaction†. However, consumers are constrained in their choices of foods by income, accessibility of goods and also the price that the consumer is willing to pay for his food. Consumer preferences are defined as the subjective taste as measured by utility-(where utility is the satisfaction that a consumer derives from the consumption of a good) of various bundles of goods. Preferences help consumer to prioritize bundles of goods according to the levels of utility that they give the consumer. However, these preferences are not dependent on income and prices only. The ability for a consumer to purchase certain kind of food does not always determine a consumers like or dislike over another food. For example, an African consumer in Liverpool can have a preference for African foods over British foods but only has the financial means to buy British meals more often. There are certain assumptions of consumers preference theory, which will be further looked into, the assumption of decisiveness, consistency, non-satiation, convexity. Actor network theory. ANT, a social theory pioneered by Michel Callon (1986), Bruno Latour (1987) and John Law (1987), conceptualize social interactions in terms of networks. This includes the material environment and human causes. The concept of ANT acknowledges the importance of both material and human factors in networks. The theory conveys the idea that the actor does not act ‘on his own but only under the influence of complex network of material and human influences. For example, the process involved in making African foods available is not just caused human factors, but also by production, technology, society, extended politics of trade and culture, all affecting the accessibility and availability of the foods. According to Callon (1986) materials causes as well as human actors may be determinants of the social interactions and outcomes (Callon 1986). According to Henderson 2002, ANT emphasize the relationality of object and agency in heterogeneous networks, in other words, entities in network s are shaped by and can only be understood through their relations and connectivity to other entities(Law, 1999:4 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). Again, space and distance are observed as ‘spatial fields and relational scopes of influence, power and connectivity (Harvey, 1969; Murdoch 1998 as cited in Henderson et al 2002). According to Nancy Vanhouse, ANT has to approaches, ‘follow the actor, through interviews and ethnographic research and through examining inscriptions. Inscriptions including texts, but also images of many sorts, databases, and the like are central to knowledge work. Some (e.g., Latour and Woolgar, 1991; Callon, Law, and Rip, 1986) say that texts (including journal articles, conference papers and presentations, grant proposals, and patents) are among the major, if not the major, products of scientific work. Inscriptions make action at a distance possible by stabilizing work in such a way that it can travel across space and time and be combined with other work. Texts are also central to the process of gaining credibility. They carry work to other people and institutions. They attempt to present work in such a way that its meaning and significance are irrefutable. And texts are where authors establish equivalences among problems, which Callon et al. (1986) identifies as a major strategy of enrolling others. An important part of the standard journal article or grant application, for example, is to say, in essence, If you are interested in X (major issue) you must be interested in Y, which is the topic of the work reported/proposed here. References Latour, B. and Woolgar, S. (1991). Laboratory life: the construction of scientific facts, intro by Salk, J., Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press Callon, Michel, John Law, and Arie Rip, eds. Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology: Sociology of Science in the Real World. London: Macmillan Press, 1986. Actor network theory has become very helpful in understanding connections between places and space. Its insistency on non human factor in network production Supply chain and bottleneck bureaucracy of the supply of food products from Africa into the UK makes it more difficult for the availability of this food. This furthermore widens the distance/gap between consumers and suppliers/retailers. The length of this chain affects. The quality assurance schemes, production and manufacturing to retailers protocols and the application of quality management system and standard such as HACCP and ISO series are various ways of cutting supplies. Bottlenecks of food quality and safety standards in food processing and distribution. The HACCP systems are used in specific export sectors in Africa, an example is the EU quality standard for fish in Uganda is based on EU directive 91/493/EEC and on Codex Alimentarius (Trienekens et al 2008:116) covering areas of microbiology level, pesticides residues, heavy metals, effluents, Good manufacturing practices (processing stage) and HACCP (processing stage) (Ssemwanga, 2003 as cited in Trienekens et al 2008:116). Kenya adheres to UK food and safety Act of 1990, more so testing laboratories are accredited to ISO 17025; 2000 by United Kingdom Accreditation services (UKAS) (Kari 2003), the high deportation rate of this products on western markets shows the fragility of the systems. As pesticides residues are discovered in the product. Other systems used for processors and packers of fish for exports are GMP, ISO 90002. The proliferation of standards by western markets creates a barrier for the application of standards by developing countries producers. The lack of enabling environment in which infrastructure facilities are absent in African countries is also a major setback. African countries are still discovering quality and safety of food as important condition for international food trade (Trieneken et al 2008:117). Building of facilities, government structures to improve and ensure quality and safety of products are still key agenda of attention. The importance of transportation, preservation (cooled system of transport) and storage are very vital to international trade. African countries are still at the phase of establishing the right conditions to enforce food quality and safety of the other products. According to Trieneken et al- many developing countries do not have skilled labour and laboratory facilities, this however limits good- quality management, making difficult. Small and medium size business, from developing countries find difficult or almost impossible to comply with standard required in western markets (Dinham, 2003, Unnevehr, 2002). Due to barriers created by SPS and TBT in exporting foods, from developing countries do not have the adequate information and most likely unaware of specific demand of western standards for trade. The heterogeneous standard in developed economies also poses a problem, as continues differ to country and market also differ. The cost of certification is too much for develop countries to bear. Most African food products are unable to adapt to the rigorous requirements of modern supply chain, either through scale enterprise or lack of knowledge or financial constraints, become non-competitive. The myriad of innovations and development has made the process of food supply chain increase in productivity. The combine technology of accurate weighing, refrigeration controlled atmospheric bacterial growth inhibition, pasteurisation, micro-element pollutant detection, bar-coding, electronic recognition of packaging, the use of stabilizers etc, has also contributed to the difficulty in having African food cross over, as most business may not be financially equipped enough for the volume of the trading. Christopher (1999) notes that the supply chain management evolves around the partnership developed in the chain and is supported by information technology applications that co-ordinate information dissemination and sharing amongst the chain members. This research has revealed that most home cooked food are prepared under high hygienic conditions, as cooking is monitored by consumer themselves problems with calories consumptions that affect the health of consumer is also under check, compared to the perceptions about eating fast food at convenience KFC and MacDonalds. This is one reason for the preference of African food among black consumer. One of the major problems of availability of African foods in UK is the problem of access into the country. Developing countries especially in Africa find it difficult to meet the food safety standards imposed by the UK/developing countries. Food safety standards which were originally set up to keep food for quality and safe consumption, by government of different countries are being used as trade impeding protectionist tools.(Jongwanich 2009:1). Food safety standards are usually to the disadvantage of developing countries, due to their limits capacity to access and use technology and information. International trade negotiations have experience setbacks for developing countries in recent years due to a demand for more stringent SPS in developed countries, which is as a result of increase in health consciousness and rising incomes. Before now, tariffs and quantitative restrictions are the trade barriers and impediments that affect export from developing countries to developed countri es, but in recent times, food safety standards have become tool for protectionist to block trade(Jongwanich 2009:

The Ku Klux Klan: The First Era :: Racism Racist Essays

The Ku Klux Klan: The First Era With the ending of the Civil War in 1865, the period of American history known as the Reconstruction began. It was during this era that the Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacist group, spunoff from the freemasons, first came to power. The Freemasons usually tended to attract people in the upper-middle class, while the KKK and Knights of Labor, another racist group, attracted the working class. The KKK was formed mostly to restore the â€Å"peculiar institution† of slavery to America and to reinstate the Caucasian race as the most superior race in the world. A former Confederate general and Freemason, Nathan Bedford Forrest, founded the Klan in 1866 because Negroes were being allowed to enter the brotherhood of freemasonry. He served as the Klan’s first Imperial Wizard, and Albert Pike, another freemason, held the office of the Chief Justice of the KKK. He held this office while he was simultaneously Sovereign Grand Commander of Scottish Rite, Freemasons, Southern Jurisdiction. His racism was well known, and in justifying his actions, he stated â€Å"I took my obligation to white men, not to Negroes. When I have to accept Negroes as brothers or leave Masonry, I shall leave it.† (1) The bare facts about the birth of the Ku Klux Klan and its revival a half century later are baffling to most people today. Little more than a year after it was founded, the secret society thundered across the war-torn south, sabotaged Reconstruction governments, and imposed a reign of terror and violence that lasted three or four years. And then, as rapidly as it had spread, the Klan faded into the History books. After World War I, a new version of the Klan sputtered to life and brought many parts of the nation under its paralyzing grip of racism and bloodshed. Then, having grown to be a major force for the second time, the Klan again receded into the background. This time it never quite disappeared, but it never again commanded such widespread support. The origin of the Ku Klux Klan was a carefully guarded secret for years, although there were many theories to explain its beginnings. One popular notion held that the Ku Klux Klan was originally a secret order of Chinese opium smugglers. Another claimed it was begun by Confederate prisoners during the war. The most ridiculous theory attributed the name to some ancient Jewish document referring to the Hebrews enslaved by Egyptian pharaohs.

Act like a girl

I wanted to Interview a male who has experienced similar experiences with not being accepted because he was not the stereotypical â€Å"man. † In our Interview the other day, I asked you If you agreed or disagreed with this statement: â€Å"Every child, boy or girl, should have the right to his or her own self image, and should not have to live by some gender roles† (Freeman 36). You answered yes in agreement! I asked you why you said yes so quickly. Your answer was because growing up you faced situations when you wished you could simply be yourself thou the Judgment of others.You shared your thoughts of what the stereotype of a man Is to you. Some common Images of a man Is to be athletic, masculine, muscular, insensitive, and tough. I'm sure you could have gone on with this list of characteristics expected of a â€Å"manly man. † Women are expected to be a particular way, also. Some of us Just don't fall under those expected traits. Still, most people tend to ho ld common stereotypes of certain people in mind. We both went to the same high school and cheered on our Varsity cheer squad for 2 years together.I was glad that you decided to share this part of your life with me, I know It was hard to talk about. In high school you didn't dress Like all the other boys, and you didn't talk like all the other boys. You were a male cheerleader. You were the only male cheerleader. You expressed the hardship and ridicule our peers put you through. I felt a deep sorrow when you told me that our peers would tease you. Teasing is for elementary school, not high school. I could see the pain in your eyes when you would state the comments the students would make towards you.It Is definitely a common assumption for people to make that because a male Is a cheerleader, then he must be gay. You do not consider yourself to fit the gender role of a typical male, because you are very much the opposite. I felt it was necessary to ask you about your childhood. I want ed to know how you grew up and if there was any influences in your life pertaining to the topic of gender stereotypes. Growing up you said that you didn't play with car toys, or ride motorcycle bikes, and wasn't into sports.In Freeman's essay he TLD play with parable dolls, or play tea party with the other little girls, and she loved playing basketball. When I asked you if you had played sports, you said no but you would play catch in the park with your dad. I am sorry to have heard that your father passed away when you were very young. I was surprised to hear that you do not think that your father passing away influenced you to be more in touch with your feelings. You have always been more in touch with your feelings even before that incident. Most people think that a boys father passing away will greatly Influence theDuring our interview, your brother, Corey came in to greet me. That was polite of him! I asked you how your relationship was with your brother, since you two are very opposite of each other. Your brother seems to fit the mold of our society's â€Å"man. † I was devastated to hear that your relationship with your brother has been strained for years. It started when you became a cheerleader, because he doesn't accept the fact that that is who you are and that is what makes you happy. Freeman and her mother's relationship was also uneasy because of her mother's lack of support.On the contrary, your relationship with your mother is beautiful, and stable. You expressed your thankfulness and appreciation for her in our interview. She has not turned her back on you, or Judged you. Your mother accepts you for who you are. You are her son and she loves you no matter what happens. I enjoyed our interview. Thank you for taking the time to sit down with me and discuss the questions I had for you. I am happy that you are absolutely content with yourself. We have been friends for a couple of years now, and I wouldn't change you for anything.

Spirit Bound Chapter One

THERE'S A BIG DIFFERENCE BETWEEN death threats and love letters–even if the person writing the death threats still claims to actually love you. Of course, considering I once tried to kill someone I loved, maybe I had no right to judge. Today's letter had been perfectly timed, not that I should have expected any less. I'd read it four times so far, and even though I was running late, I couldn't help but read it a fifth time. My dearest Rose, One of the few downsides to being awakened is that we no longer require sleep; therefore we also no longer dream. It's a shame, because if I could dream, I know I'd dream about you. I'd dream about the way you smell and how your dark hair feels like silk between my fingers. I'd dream about the smoothness of your skin and the fierceness of your lips when we kiss. Without dreams, I have to be content with my own imagination–which is almost as good. I can picture all of those things perfectly, as well as how it'll be when I take your life from this world. It's something I regret having to do, but you've made my choice inevitable. Your refusal to join me in eternal life and love leaves no other course of action, and I can't allow someone as dangerous as you to live. Besides, even if I forced your awakening, you now have so many enemies among the Strigoi that one of them would kill you. If you must die, it'll be by my hand. No one else's. Nonetheless, I wish you well today as you take your trials–not that you need any luck. If they're actually making you take them, it's a waste of everyone's time. You're the best in that group, and by this evening you'll wear your promise mark. Of course, that means you'll be all that much more of a challenge when we meet again–which I'll definitely enjoy. And we will be meeting again. With graduation, you'll be turned out of the Academy, and once you're outside the wards, I'll find you. There is no place in this world you can hide from me. I'm watching. Love, Dimitri Despite his â€Å"warm wishes† I didn't really find the letter inspiring as I tossed it onto my bed and blearily left the room. I tried not to let his words get to me, though it was kind of impossible to not be creeped out by something like that. There is no place in this world you can hide from me. I didn't doubt it. I knew Dimitri had spies. Since my former instructor-turned-lover had been turned into an evil, undead vampire, he'd also become a sort of leader among them–something I'd helped speed along when I killed off his former boss. I suspected a lot of his spies were humans, watching for me to step outside my school's borders. No Strigoi could have stayed on a twenty-four-hour stakeout. Humans could, and I'd recently learned that plenty of humans were willing to serve the Strigoi in exchange for the promise of being turned someday. Those humans considered eternal life worth corrupting their souls and killing off others to survive. Those humans made me sick. But the humans weren't what made my steps falter as I walked through grass that had turned bright green with summer's touch. It was Dimitri. Always Dimitri. Dimitri, the man I'd loved. Dimitri, the Strigoi I wanted to save. Dimitri, the monster I'd most likely have to kill. The love we'd shared always burned within me, no matter how often I told myself to move on, no matter how much the world did think I'd moved on. He was always with me, always on my mind, always making me question myself. â€Å"You look like you're ready to face an army.† I shifted out of my dark thoughts. I'd been so fixated on Dimitri and his letter that I'd been walking across campus, oblivious to the world, and hadn't noticed my best friend, Lissa, falling into step with me, a teasing smile on her face. Her catching me by surprise was a rarity because we shared a psychic bond, one that always kept me aware of her presence and feelings. I had to be pretty distracted to not notice her, and if ever there was a distraction, it was someone wanting to kill me. I gave Lissa what I hoped was a convincing smile. She knew what had happened to Dimitri and how he was now waiting to kill me after I'd tried–and failed–to kill him. Nonetheless, the letters I got from him every week worried her, and she had enough to deal with in her life without my undead stalker to add to the list. â€Å"I kind of am facing an army,† I pointed out. It was early evening, but late summer still found the sun up in the Montana sky, bathing us in golden light as we walked. I loved it, but as a Moroi–a peaceful, living vampire–Lissa would eventually grow weak and uncomfortable in it. She laughed and tossed her platinum hair over one shoulder. The sun lit up the pale color into angelic brilliance. â€Å"I suppose. I didn't think you'd really be all that worried.† I could understand her reasoning. Even Dimitri had said these would be a waste of my time. After all, I'd gone to Russia to search for him and had faced real Strigoi–killing a number of them on my own. Maybe I shouldn't have been afraid of the upcoming tests, but all the fanfare and expectation suddenly pressed in upon me. My heart rate increased. What if I couldn't do it? What if I wasn't as good as I thought I was? The guardians who would challenge me out here might not be true Strigoi, but they were skilled and had been fighting a lot longer than me. Arrogance could get me into a lot of trouble, and if I failed, I'd be doing it in front of all the people who cared about me. All the people who had such faith in me. One other thing also concerned me. â€Å"I'm worried about how these grades will affect my future,† I said. That was the truth. The trials were the final exam for a novice guardian like me. They ensured I could graduate from St. Vladimir's Academy and take my place with true guardians who defended Moroi from the Strigoi. The trials pretty much decided which Moroi a guardian would be assigned to. Through our bond, I felt Lissa's compassion–and her worry. â€Å"Alberta thinks there's a good chance we can stay together–that you'll still be my guardian.† I grimaced. â€Å"I think Alberta was saying that to keep me in school.† I'd dropped out to hunt Dimitri a few months ago and then returned–something that didn't look good on my academic record. There was also the small fact that the Moroi queen, Tatiana, hated me and would probably be going out of her way to influence my assignment–but that was another story. â€Å"I think Alberta knows the only way they'd let me protect you is if I was the last guardian on earth. And even then, my odds would still be pretty slim.† Ahead of us, the roar of a crowd grew loud. One of the school's many sports fields had been transformed into an arena on par with something from Roman gladiatorial days. The bleachers had been built up, expanded from simple wooden seats to luxuriously cushioned benches with awnings to shade the Moroi from the sun. Banners surrounded the field, their bright colors visible from here as they whipped in the wind. I couldn't see them yet, but I knew there would be some type of barracks built near the stadium's entrance where novices waited, nerves on edge. The field itself would have turned into an obstacle course of dangerous tests. And from the sound of those deafening cheers, plenty were already there to witness this event. â€Å"I'm not giving up hope,† Lissa said. Through the bond, I knew she meant it. It was one of the wonderful things about her–a steadfast faith and optimism that weathered the most terrible ordeals. It was a sharp contrast to my recent cynicism. â€Å"And I've got something that might help you out today.† She came to a stop and reached into her jeans pocket, producing a small silver ring scattered with tiny stones that looked like peridots. I didn't need any bond to understand what she was offering. â€Å"Oh, Liss†¦ I don't know. I don't want any, um, unfair advantage.† Lissa rolled her eyes. â€Å"That's not the problem, and you know it. This one's fine, I swear.† The ring she offered me was a charm, infused with the rare type of magic she wielded. All Moroi had control of one of five elements: earth, air, water, fire, or spirit. Spirit was the rarest–so rare, it had been forgotten over the centuries. Then Lissa and a few others had recently surfaced with it. Unlike the other elements, which were more physical in nature, spirit was tied into the mind and all sorts of psychic phenomena. No one fully understood it. Making charms with spirit was something Lissa had only recently begun to experiment with–and she wasn't very good at it. Her best spirit ability was healing, so she kept trying to make healing charms. The last one had been a bracelet that singed my arm. â€Å"This one works. Only a little, but it'll help keep the darkness away during the trial.† She spoke lightly, but we both knew the seriousness of her words. With all of spirit's gifts came a cost: a darkness that showed itself now as anger and confusion, and eventually led to insanity. Darkness that sometimes bled over into me through our bond. Lissa and I had been told that with charms and her healing, we could fight it off. That was also something we had yet to master. I gave her a faint smile, moved by her concern, and accepted the ring. It didn't scald my hand, which I took as a promising sign. It was tiny and only fit on my pinky. I felt nothing whatsoever as it slid on. Sometimes that happened with healing charms. Or it could mean the ring was completely ineffectual. Either way, no harm done. â€Å"Thanks,† I said. I felt delight sweep through her, and we continued walking. I held my hand out before me, admiring the way the green stones glittered. Jewelry wasn't a great idea in the kind of physical ordeals I'd be facing, but I would have gloves on to cover it. â€Å"Hard to believe that after this, we'll be done here and out in the real world,† I mused aloud, not really considering my words. Beside me, Lissa stiffened, and I immediately regretted speaking. â€Å"Being out in the real world† meant Lissa and I were going to undertake a task she'd–unhappily–promised to help me with a couple months ago. While in Siberia, I'd learned there might be a way to restore Dimitri back to being a dhampir like me. It was a long shot–possibly a lie–and considering the way he was fixated on killing me, I had no illusions that I would have any other choice but to kill him if it came down to him or me. But if there was a way I might save him before that happened, I had to find out. Unfortunately, the only lead we had to making this miracle come true was through a criminal. Not just any criminal either: Victor Dashkov, a royal Moroi who had tortured Lissa and committed all sorts of other atrocities that had made our lives hell. Justice had been served, and Victor was locked away in prison, which complicated things. We'd learned that so long as he was destined for a life behind bars, he saw no reason to share what he knew about his half-brother–the only person who had once allegedly saved a Strigoi. I'd decided–possibly illogically–that Victor might give up the information if we offered him the one thing no one else could: freedom. This idea was not foolproof, for a number of reasons. First, I didn't know if it would work. That was kind of a big thing. Second, I had no idea how to stage a prison break, let alone where his prison even was. And finally, there was the fact that we would be releasing our mortal enemy. That was devastating enough to me, let alone Lissa. Yet as much as the idea troubled her–and believe me, it did–she'd firmly sworn she would help me. I'd offered to free her from the promise dozens of times in the last couple months, but she'd stood firm. Of course, considering we had no way to even find the prison, her promise might not matter in the end. I tried to fill the awkward silence between us, explaining instead that I'd really meant we'd be able to celebrate her birthday in style next week. My attempts were interrupted by Stan, one of my longtime instructors. â€Å"Hathaway!† he barked, coming from the direction of the field. â€Å"Nice of you to join us. Get in there now!† Thoughts of Victor vanished from Lissa's mind. Lissa gave me a quick hug. â€Å"Good luck,† she whispered. â€Å"Not that you need it.† Stan's expression told me that this ten-second goodbye was ten seconds too long. I gave Lissa a grin by way of thanks, and then she headed off to find our friends in the stands while I scurried after Stan. â€Å"You're lucky you aren't one of the first ones,† he growled. â€Å"People were even making bets about whether you'd show.† â€Å"Really?† I asked cheerfully. â€Å"What kind of odds are there on that? Because I can still change my mind and put down my own bet. Make a little pocket money.† His narrowed eyes shot me a warning that needed no words as we entered the waiting area adjacent to the field, across from the stands. It had always amazed me in past years how much work went into these trials, and I was no less impressed now as I saw it up close. The barrack that novices waited in was constructed out of wood, complete with a roof. The structure looked as though it had been part of the stadium forever. It had been built with remarkable speed and would be taken down equally quickly once the trials were over. A doorway about three people wide gave a partial glimpse onto the field, where one of my classmates was waiting anxiously for her name to be called. All sorts of obstacles were set up there, challenges to test balance and coordination while still having to battle and elude the adult guardians who would be lurking around objects and corners. Wooden walls had been constructed on one end of the field, creating a dark and confusing maze. Nets and shaky platforms hung across other areas, designed to test just how well we could fight under difficult conditions. A few of the other novices crowded the doorway, hoping to get an advantage by watching those who went ahead of them. Not me. I would go in there blind, content to take on whatever they threw before me. Studying the course now would simply make me overthink and panic. Calm was what I needed now. So I leaned against one of the barrack walls and watched those around me. It appeared that I really had been the last to show up, and I wondered if people had actually lost money betting on me. Some of my classmates whispered in clusters. Some were doing stretches and warm-up exercises. Others stood with instructors who had been mentors. Those teachers spoke intently to their students, giving last-minute words of advice. I kept hearing words like focus and calm down. Seeing the instructors made my heart clench. Not so long ago, that was how I'd pictured this day. I'd imagined Dimitri and me standing together, with him telling me to take this seriously and not to lose my cool when I was out on the field. Alberta had done a fair amount of mentoring for me since I'd returned from Russia, but as captain, she was out on the field herself now, busy with all sorts of responsibilities. She had no time to come in here and hold my hand. Friends of mine who might have offered comfort–Eddie, Meredith, and others–were wrapped up in their own fears. I was alone. Without her or Dimitri–or, well, anyone–I felt a surprising ache of loneliness flow through me. This wasn't right. I shouldn't have been alone. Dimitri should have been here with me. That's how it was supposed to have been. Closing my eyes, I allowed myself to pretend he was really there, only inches away as we spoke. â€Å"Don't worry, comrade. I can do this blindfolded. Hell, maybe I actually will. Do you have anything I can use? If you're nice to me, I'll even let you tie it on.† Since this fantasy would have taken place after we'd slept together, there was a strong possibility that he would have later helped me take off that blindfold–among other things. I could perfectly picture the exasperated shake of his head that would earn me. â€Å"Rose, I swear, sometimes it feels like every day with you is my own personal trial.† But I knew he'd smile anyway, and the look of pride and encouragement he'd give me as I headed toward the field would be all I needed to get through the tests– â€Å"Are you meditating?† I opened my eyes, astonished at the voice. â€Å"Mom? What are you doing here?† My mother, Janine Hathaway, stood in front of me. She was just a few inches shorter than me but had enough fight in her for someone twice my size. The dangerous look on her tanned face dared anyone to bring on a challenge. She gave me a wry smile and put one hand on her hip. â€Å"Did you honestly think I wouldn't come to watch you?† â€Å"I don't know,† I admitted, feeling kind of guilty for doubting her. She and I hadn't had much contact over the years, and it was only recent events–most of them bad–that had begun to reestablish our connection. Most of the time, I still didn't know how to feel about her. I oscillated between a little girl's need for her absent mother and a teenager's resentment over abandonment. I also wasn't entirely sure if I'd forgiven her for the time she â€Å"accidentally† punched me in a mock fight. â€Å"I figured you'd have, you know, more important things to do.† â€Å"There's no way I could miss this.† She inclined her head toward the stands, making her auburn curls sway. â€Å"Neither could your father.† â€Å"What?† I hurried toward the doorway and peered out onto the fields. My view of the stands wasn't fantastic, thanks to all the obstacles on the field, but it was good enough. There he was: Abe Mazur. He was easy to spot, with his black beard and mustache, as well as the emerald green scarf knotted over his dress shirt. I could even barely make out the glint of his gold earring. He had to be melting in this heat, but I figured it would take more than a little sweat for him to tame down his flashy fashion sense. If my relationship with my mother was sketchy, my relationship with my father was practically nonexistent. I'd met him back in May, and even then, it wasn't until after I'd gotten back that I found out I was his daughter. All dhampirs had one Moroi parent, and he was mine. I still wasn't sure how I felt about him. Most of his background remained a mystery, but there were plenty of rumors that he was involved with illegal business. People also acted like he was the kneecap-breaking type, and though I'd seen little evidence of this, I didn't find it surprising. In Russia, they called him Zmey: the serpent. While I stared at him in astonishment, my mom strolled over to my side. â€Å"He'll be happy you made it in time,† she said. â€Å"He's running some big wager on whether you'd show. He put his money on you, if that makes you feel any better.† I groaned. â€Å"Of course. Of course he'd be the bookie behind the pool. I should have known as soon as–† My jaw dropped. â€Å"Is he talking to Adrian?† Yup. Sitting beside Abe was Adrian Ivashkov–my more-or-less boyfriend. Adrian was a royal Moroi–and another spirit user like Lissa. He'd been crazy about me (and often just crazy) ever since we first met, but I'd had eyes only for Dimitri. After the failure in Russia, I'd returned and promised to give Adrian a shot. To my surprise, things had been†¦ good between us. Great, even. He'd written me up a proposal of why dating him was a sound decision. It had included things like â€Å"I'll give up cigarettes unless I really, really need one† and â€Å"I'll unleash romantic surprises every week, such as: an impromptu picnic, roses, or a trip to Paris–but not actually any of those things because now they're not surprises.† Being with him wasn't like it had been with Dimitri, but then, I supposed, no two relationships could ever be exactly alike. They were different men, after all. I still woke up all the time, aching over the loss of Dimitri and our love. I tormented myself over my failure to kill him in Siberia and free him from his undead state. Still, that despair didn't mean my romantic life was over–something it had taken me a while to accept. Moving on was hard, but Adrian did make me happy. And for now, that was enough. But that didn't necessarily mean I wanted him cozying up to my pirate mobster father either. â€Å"He's a bad influence!† I protested. My mother snorted. â€Å"I doubt Adrian will influence Abe that much.† â€Å"Not Adrian! Abe. Adrian's trying to be on good behavior. Abe will mess everything up.† Along with smoking, Adrian had sworn he'd quit drinking and other vices in his dating proposal. I squinted at him and Abe across the crowded stands, trying to figure out what topic could be so interesting. â€Å"What are they talking about?† â€Å"I think that's the least of your problems right now.† Janine Hathaway was nothing if not practical. â€Å"Worry less about them and more about that field.† â€Å"Do you think they're talking about me?† â€Å"Rose!† My mother gave me a light punch on the arm, and I dragged my eyes back to her. â€Å"You have to take this seriously. Keep calm, and don't get distracted.† Her words were so like what I'd imagined Dimitri saying that a small smile crept onto my face. I wasn't alone out here after all. â€Å"What's so funny?† she asked warily. â€Å"Nothing,† I said, giving her a hug. She was stiff at first and then relaxed, actually hugging me back briefly before stepping away. â€Å"I'm glad you're here.† My mother wasn't the overly affectionate type, and I'd caught her off guard. â€Å"Well,† she said, obviously flustered, â€Å"I told you I wouldn't miss this.† I glanced back at the stands. â€Å"Abe, on the other hand, I'm not so sure of.† Or†¦ wait. An odd idea came to me. No, not so odd, actually. Shady or not, Abe had connections–ones extensive enough to slip a message to Victor Dashkov in prison. Abe had been the one to ask for info about Robert Doru, Victor's spirit-wielding brother, as a favor to me. When Victor had sent back the message saying he had no reason to help Abe with what he needed, I'd promptly written off my father's assistance and jumped to my prison-break idea. But now– â€Å"Rosemarie Hathaway!† It was Alberta who called me, her voice ringing loud and clear. It was like a trumpet, a call to battle. All thoughts of Abe and Adrian–and yes, even Dimitri–vanished from my mind. I think my mother wished me good luck, but the exact wording was lost on me as I strode toward Alberta and the field. Adrenaline surged through me. All my attention was now on what lay ahead: the test that would finally make me a guardian.